Seafloor Spreading

This diagram shows the Americas being separated from the Europe and Africa as the seafloor spreads. Continents are grey in color. Youngest seafloor is red and as seafloor gets older it becomes yellow, green and then blue. Click on image for full size version (40K GIF) Image from: NOAA/NESDIS/National Geophysical Data Center, Boulder, CO

This diagram provides evidence of seafloor spreading by showing the ages of ocean floor in the Atlantic and eastern Pacific Oceans. The red colors are the youngest parts of the seafloor, where fresh new crust is formed as lava seeps up from the deep interior of the Earth at spreading ridges. As new crust forms at these spreading ridges, older crust, colored green in the diagram, moves away from the ridge. The blue portions are the oldest regions of the seafloor. They are either next to continents, which also contain very old rocks, or are near areas on Earth where subduction is taking place.

The diagram shows the American continents being separated from the Eurasian and African continents. This is a very fast model of what has happened to the Earth’s plates over the past 250 million years.

Subduction

This is a drawing of a portion of the Earth's crust undergoing subduction. Click on image for full size version (40K GIF) Image copyright 1997 by the American Geophysical Union. Further electronic distribution is not allowed.

When two sections of the Earth's crust collide, one slab of crust can be forced back down into the deeper regions of the Earth, as shown in this diagram. This process is called subduction. The slab that is forced back into the Earth usually undergoes melting when the edges get to a depth which is hot enough. (A temperature hot enough to melt lithosphere is about a thousand degrees!). This process is called "subduction".

Melted crust rises back towards the surface where it helps make volcanoes and islands. Thus the formation of some volcanoes, mountains, and islands is connected to the process of subduction and continental drift.

The melted lithosphere also releases gases of the atmosphere which had become trapped in the ground. Thus subduction of the lithosphere contributes to recycling of the atmosphere!

How Do Plates Move?

This image is a cross section through the Earth showing the convection cells of the mantle. Ridge push happens at spreading centers where plates are moving apart. Slab pull happens at subduction zones where one plate is pulled down into the mantle. Click on image for full size (11K GIF) Windows Original after Northcott

Plates at our planet’s surface move because of the intense heat in the Earth’s core that causes molten rock in the mantle layer to move. It moves in a pattern called a convection cell that forms when warm material rises, cools, and eventually sink down. As the cooled material sinks down, it is warmed and rises again.

Scientists once thought that Earth’s plates just surfed on top of the mantle’s giant convection cells, but now scientists believe that plates help themselves move instead of just surfing along. Just like convection cells, plates have warmer, thinner parts that are more likely to rise, and colder, denser parts that are more likely to sink.

New parts of a plate rise because they are warm and the plate is thin. As hot magma rises to the surface at spreading ridges and forms new crust, the new crust pushes the rest of a plate out of its way. This is called ridge push.

Old parts of a plate are likely to sink down into the mantle at subduction zones because they are colder and thicker than the warm mantle material underneath them. This is called slab pull.

Clues to Plate Movements

This is a drawing of the Earth's lithosphere. Click on image for full size version (40K GIF)

Many kinds of surface features are clues that our lithosphere is sliding.

Two types of features can form when plates move apart. At mid ocean ridges, the bottom of the sea splits apart and new crust is formed from molten rock, or magma, rising from the mantle. Continental rifts form when a continent begins to split apart. If a continental rift continues to split a continent apart it can eventually form an ocean basin.

When two plates move towards each other, several features can form. Often, one of the plates is forced to go down into the hot asthenosphere at a subduction zone. Volcanoes may form when a subducted plate melts and the molten rock comes to the surface. If neither plate is subducted, the two crash into each other forming huge mountains.

If these features are found on a planet's surface, they provide evidence that the planet's surface is in motion. The sliding lithosphere makes Earth special because there are only a few other planets that have a surface in motion.

What causes a Planet's surface to change its appearance?

This is an image of the Martian dunefields. Click on image for full size version (40K GIF) Image from: NASA

Over the course of time there are many things which can cause the surface of a planet to change its appearance.

• winds, as shown in the example from the Martian surface
  • Monument Valley on Earth is an example
• weather & water, which cause erosion
• volcanism, which pours out a new surface
  • The Moon is an example.
• continental drift
• slow forces of deformation like those which cause mountains to form.
  • The crust of Ganymede is an example.
• slumping of craters, mountains and volcanoes.
  • The surface of Callisto is an example.

In their earliest histories, every planet & moon was bombarded with the remains of the material which formed them. If a planet's surface does not show many craters, it means that the surface is new, and the planet has been resurfaced, perhaps by one of the processes above. If the planet's surface still shows the many craters left over from it's formation, then that surface is very old, and has not been changed by any activity.

Plate Tectonics

Earth's tectonic plates. Plate boundaries are shown in red. Learn more about the geologic features related to Earth's tectonic plates at This Dynamic Planet Modified from USGS

The main force that shapes our planet’s surface over long amounts of time is the movement of Earth's outer layer by the process of plate tectonics.

This picture shows how the rigid outer layer of the Earth, called the lithosphere, is made of plates which fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. These plates are made of rock, but the rock is, in general, lightweight compared with the denser, fluid layer underneath. This allows the plates to "float" on top of the denser material.

Movements deep within the Earth, which carry heat from the hot interior to the cooler surface, cause the plates to move very slowly on the surface, about 2 inches per year. There are several different hypotheses to explain exactly how these motions allow plates to move.

Interesting things happen at the edges of plates. Subduction zones form when plates crash into each other, spreading ridges form when plates pull away from each other, and large faults form when plates slide past each other.

What Is an Earthquake?

This diagram shows an earthquake along a fault. The focus of the earthquake is where the energy is released underground. The epicenter is the spot on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
USGS

The expression “on solid ground” is often used to describe something as stable. Usually the solid ground underfoot seems very stable. But sometimes it is not.

"The ground seemed to twist under us like a top while it jerked this way and that, and up and down and every way," wrote a person describing the experience of being in the large 1906 earthquake in San Francisco, CA.

Earthquakes happen as large blocks of the Earth’s crust move suddenly past one another because of the force of plate tectonics. These blocks of the Earth’s crust meet at cracks called faults. Sometimes those pieces do not slide smoothly past one another. There can be friction along the fault – jagged edges that snag the blocks of rock. This makes it difficult for them to move past each other. Sometimes they get stuck together temporarily. When the pieces of rock overcome the snags, energy is released. The release of energy causes shaking at the ground surface.

The location inside the Earth where an earthquake begins is called the focus. The point at the Earth’s surface directly above the focus is called the epicenter. The strongest shaking happens at the epicenter.

Each year, more than a million earthquakes occur worldwide. Most of these are so small that people do not feel the shaking. But some are large enough that people feel them, and a few of those are so large that they cause significant damage.

Earthquakes can cause damage to things like buildings, bridges, and roads. Earthquakes can cause landslides and mudslides, too. If a large earthquake happens under the ocean it can cause a tsunami – a giant ocean wave or series of waves.

Scientists can figure out whether an earthquake is likely to happen in a place by studying plate tectonics, the faults underground, and the history of the area’s earthquakes. However, unlike weather events, earthquakes can not be forecast ahead of time.

Surface Features of the Earth

This image shows the topography, or shape, of the Earth's surface, on land and below the oceans. Mountain ranges, subduction trenches, tectonic plates, and mid-ocean ridges are all visible in the image. Click on image for full size version with these features identified.(637K GIF) Image from: U.S. Geological Survey

This image of the surface of the Earth shows the North and South American continents, as well as the floor of the Pacific Ocean. As can be seen in the image, the ocean floor shows evidence of

• mid-ocean spreading ridges
• individual volcanic island formation.
• subduction

The continental regions show evidence of

• volcanoes (a portion of the "Pacific Rim of Fire")
• non-volcanic mountain ranges
• island arcs
• faulting.

(Click on the image to see labeled examples of these features.)

These things provide evidence that, unlike other planets, the surface of the Earth is in motion. Motion of the Earth's surface is called plate tectonics.

Compare this active surface with that of Venus, Mars, or Europa.

The Earth's Crust, Lithosphere and Asthenosphere

This drawing shows the Earth's lithosphere (crust and upper mantle) on top of the asthenosphere. Click on image for full size version (40K GIF)

Crust, the upper layer of the Earth, is not always the same. Crust under the oceans is only about 5 km thick while continental crust can be up to 65 km thick. Also, ocean crust is made of denser minerals than continental crust.

The tectonic plates are made up of Earth’s crust and the upper part of the mantle layer underneath. Together the crust and upper mantle are called the lithosphere and they extend about 80 km deep. The lithosphere is broken into giant plates that fit around the globe like puzzle pieces. These puzzle pieces move a little bit each year as they slide on top of a somewhat fluid part of the mantle called the asthenosphere. All this moving rock can cause earthquakes.

The asthenosphere is ductile and can be pushed and deformed like silly putty in response to the warmth of the Earth. These rocks actually flow, moving in response to the stresses placed upon them by the churning motions of the deep interior of the Earth. The flowing asthenosphere carries the lithosphere of the Earth, including the continents, on its back.

Surface and Interior of Earth

Click on image for full size version (378K GIF) Image courtesy of NASA

Earth, the largest and densest rocky planet, was formed about 4.5 billion years ago. The Earth's interior is divided into four layers, which is typical of rocky planets. Each layer has different characteristics and is made of different elements and minerals.

There are many different types of features on Earth’s surface due to the complexity of our planet. The surface is unique from the other planets because it is the only one which has liquid water in such large quantities. Water forms some features of Earth's surface such as rivers, oceans, beaches and lakes. Other surface features, such as mountains, earthquakes and volcanoes, are formed when large pieces of the Earth’s outer layer move slowly by plate tectonics.

Structure of the Interior of Earth

Click on image for full size version (64K GIF)

Earth has a diameter of 12,756 km (7,972 mi). The Earth's interior consists of rock and metal. It is made up of four main layers:
1) the inner core: a solid metal core made up of nickel and iron (1200 km diameter)
2) the outer core: a liquid molten core of nickel and iron
3) the mantle: dense and mostly solid silicate rock
4) the crust: thin silicate rock material

The temperature in the core is hotter than the Sun's surface. This intense heat from the inner core causes material in the outer core and mantle to move around.

The movement of material deep within the Earth may cause large plates made of the crust and upper mantle to move slowly over the Earth’s surface. It is also possible that the movements generate the Earth's magnetic field, called the magnetosphere.

Surface of the Earth

Click on image for full size version (383K GIF) Image from: Rick Kohrs, Space Science and Engineering Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison

Most of the Earth's surface (70%) is covered with water, and the remaining 30% is taken up by the seven continental landmasses. However, underneath the water that fills the oceans, and the dirt and plants that cover the continents, the Earth’s surface layer is made of rock. This outer layer formed a hard, rocky crust as lava at the surface cooled 4.5 billion years ago.

The crust is broken into many large plates that move slowly relative to each other. Mountain ranges form when two plates collide and their edges are forced up. In addition, many other surface features are the result of the moving plates. The plates move about one inch per year, so millions of years ago the continents and the oceans were in different positions. About 250 million years ago, most of the land was connected together, and ov

This image shows the divisions of the Earth's interior. Click on the image to see labels. (Adapted from Beatty, 1990)

er time has separated into seven continents.

What Causes the Greenhouse Effect?

The “greenhouse effect” often gets a bad rap because of its association with global warming, but the truth is we couldn’t live without it.Life on earth depends on energy from the sun. About 30 percent of the sunlight that beams toward Earth is deflected by the outer atmosphere and scattered back into space. The rest reaches the planet’s surface and is reflected upward again as a type of slow-moving energy called infrared radiation.

As it rises, infrared radiation is absorbed by “greenhouse gases” such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone and methane, which slows its escape from the atmosphere.

Although greenhouse gases make up only about 1 percent of the Earth’s atmosphere, they regulate our climate by trapping heat and holding it in a kind of warm-air blanket that surrounds the planet.

This phenomenon is what scientists call the "greenhouse effect." Without it, scientists estimate that the average temperature on Earth would be colder by approximately 30 degrees Celsius (54 degrees Fahrenheit), far too cold to sustain our current ecosystem.

How Do Humans Contribute to the Greenhouse Effect?
While the greenhouse effect is an essential environmental prerequisite for life on Earth, there really can be too much of a good thing.

The problems begin when human activities distort and accelerate the natural process by creating more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere than are necessary to warm the planet to an ideal temperature.

• Burning natural gas, coal and oil —including gasoline for automobile engines—raises the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
• Some farming practices and land-use changes increase the levels of methane and nitrous oxide.
• Many factories produce long-lasting industrial gases that do not occur naturally, yet contribute significantly to the enhanced greenhouse effect and “global warming” that is currently under way.
• Deforestation also contributes to global warming. Trees use carbon dioxide and give off oxygen in its place, which helps to create the optimal balance of gases in the atmosphere. As more forests are logged for timber or cut down to make way for farming, however, there are fewer trees to perform this critical function.
• Population growth is another factor in global warming, because as more people use fossil fuels for heat, transportation and manufacturing the level of greenhouse gases continues to increase. As more farming occurs to feed millions of new people, more greenhouse gases enter the atmosphere.

Ultimately, more greenhouse gases means more infrared radiation trapped and held, which gradually increases the temperature of the Earth’s surface and the air in the lower atmosphere.

The Average Global Temperature is Increasing Quickly
Today, the increase in the Earth’s temperature is increasing with unprecedented speed. To understand just how quickly global warming is accelerating, consider this:

During the entire 20th century, the average global temperature increased by about 0.6 degrees Celsius (slightly more than 1 degree Fahrenheit).

Using computer climate models, scientists estimate that by the year 2100 the average global temperature will increase by 1.4 degrees to 5.8 degrees Celsius (approximately 2.5 degrees to 10.5 degrees Fahrenheit).

Not All Scientists Agree
While the majority of mainstream scientists agree that global warming is a serious problem that is growing steadily worse, there are some who disagree. John Christy, a professor and director of the Earth System Science Center at the University of Alabama in Huntsville is a respected climatologist who argues that global warming isn’t worth worrying about.

Christy reached that opinion after analyzing millions of measurements from weather satellites in an effort to find a global temperature trend. He found no sign of global warming in the satellite data, and now believes that predictions of global warming by as much as 10 degrees Fahrenheit by the end of the 21st century are incorrect.

What are the effects of global warming and the greenhouse effect? See the read more.

Earthquakes

Major Topics In Module 5:

• Types of Faults

• Earthquake Process

• Detecting, Locating, and Measuring Earthquakes

• Magnitude and Intensity

• Primary Effects of Earthquakes

• Secondary Effects of Earthquakes

• Introduction

  E a _r t ^h q u _a k e ^s are probably the most frightening naturally occurring hazard encountered. Why? Earthquakes typically occur with little warning. There is no escape from an earthquake! Earthquakes have devastating effects, resulting in hundreds to thousands of deaths and injuries, and millions to billions of dollars worth of property damage. The earthquake's location, magnitude of the earthquake, surface geology, and population density are major factors contributing to earthquake damage.

  Although earthquakes can occur anywhere on earth, most earthquakes (>90%) occur where tectonic plates move against one another. The boundaries along each plate are referred to as margins. Different types of stresses are associated with each type of margin. Convergent-plate margins have compressional stresses (come together Þ Ü , therefore result in crustal shortening); divergent-plate margins have tensional stresses (move apart Ü Þ , resulting in crustal extension); and transform-plate margins have shear stresses (the plates slide past each other ). Each type of margin has a corresponding fault type associated with it.

  Types of faults

  Earthquakes result from movement along a fault. Faults and earthquakes are cause and effect. The sense of motion on faults describes how the block move relative to each other. Faults may move along preexisting fracture or may form a new one. There are 3 basic types of faults: normal, reverse, and strike-slip. Normal and reverse faulting result in vertical slip, while strike-slip faulting results in horizontal slip. In nature, motion is seldom absolutely along one direction. There can be a combination of vertical and horizontal slip, which would make the movement along the fault oblique.

  Normal faults

  Normal faults are associated with extension. A good example of normal faulting is the Basin and Range topography of the western United States. The western part of the North American plate has been pulled apart into a series of "blocks". Most Basin and Range structures result from the tilting of these blocks. A major Basin and Range fault zone is the Wasatch Fault zone, which is 220 miles long (360 kilometers) and extends from Utah into Idaho.

  

  A. Watkins diagram

  Reverse faults

  Reverse faults are associated with compressional forces- 2 plates or fault blocks pushing towards each other. One side ends up on top! Thrust faults are reverse faults that move up a shallower angle than ordinary reverse faults.

  

  Strike-slip faults

  Strike-slip faults are associated with shear stresses. One side of the fault "slides" past the other. "Sometimes" it is fairly easy to recognize where movement on a strike-slip fault has occurred. The photo below shows a creek located along the San Andreas Fault. The zigzag effect (offset) of the creek channel is the result of movement along the fault.

  Compare the photo of the San Andreas Fault with the strike-slip fault diagram. The San Andreas Fault is a right-lateral strike-slip fault.

  Earthquake processes

  Rupturing rocks release huge amounts of energy. The sudden release of energy is what is felt in an earthquake. Earthquake energy is in the form of seismic waves. The seismic waves radiate out from a central point, called the focus or hypocenter, like ripples moving outward from a pebble tossed into a lake. The location directly above the hypocenter, on the earth's surface, is called the epicenter.

  Seismic waves

  Four types of seismic waves are generated when faulting triggers an earthquake. All the seismic waves are generated at the same time, but travel at different speeds and in different ways. Body waves penetrate the earth and travel through it, while surface waves travel along the surface of the ground.

  

  Primary and secondary waves are body waves. Primary waves (P-waves) travel the fastest and can move through solids and liquids. The P-wave energy causes the ground to move in a compressional motion in the same direction that the wave is traveling. Secondary waves (S-waves) are slower and travel only through solids. The S-wave energy causes the ground to move in a shearing motion perpendicular to the direction of wave movement.

  Rayleigh and Love waves are the two types of surface waves. Rayleigh wave energy causes a complex heaving or rolling motion, while Love wave energy causes a sideways movement. The combination of Rayleigh and Love waves results in ground heave and swaying buildings. Surface waves cause the most devastating damage to buildings, bridges, and highways.

  Detecting, locating, and measuring earthquakes

  Several thousand stations monitor earthquakes all over the world. Each station contains an instrument, called a seismograph, used to detect arrival times and record seismic waves. The seismograph consists of a seismometer (the detector) and a recording device. The seismometer electronically amplifies wave motion.

  

  The graph on which seismic waves are recorded is called a seismogram. The amplitude of the recorded seismic wave is the vertical distance between the crest and trough of the waveform, therefore, the larger the earthquake, the greater the amplitude of the earthquake. The key to locating an earthquake's epicenter is the difference in arrival time, called lag time, of P- and S-waves.

• Magnitude and intensity

  Earthquakes are categorized in two ways- magnitude and intensity. Magnitude indicates the severity of an earthquake using the Richter Scale, a logarithmic, instrumentally determined measurement. Magnitude rates an earthquake as a whole. The severity of an earthquake is a rating based on the amplitude of the seismic waves. Larger amplitude waves equals higher magnitude earthquake equals greater severity. Amplitude is the vertical distance between the trough and crest of a waveform (sound familiar?).

  

  The Mercalli Scale defines intensity. Intensity is rated by how much damage was caused by an earthquake and how it affected people.

  Go to the University of Nevada-Reno Richter scale page for an excellent explanation of the Richter Scale and other earthquake quantifying tools.

  The UNR Seismological Laboratory Page is full of interesting information for earthquake enthusiasists.

• Earthquake damages (secondary effects)

  Effects of an earthquake can be classified as primary or secondary. Primary effects are permanent features produced by the earthquake. Examples include fault scarps, surface ruptures, and offsets of natural or human-constructed objects. An example you have already seen is the creek offset produced by movement along the San Andreas Fault. Secondary effects result when ground movement causes other types of damage. Examples include landslides, tsunami, liquefaction and fire. The amount of damage caused by an earthquake varies with magnitude. The greater the magnitude, the greater the damage potential.

  Landslides

  Seismic vibration is a common triggering mechanism for landslides. In hilly or mountainous regions, landslides can have particularly devastating effects. Damages can range from debris-covered roadways to extensive property damage and numerous casualties.

  Tsunami

  A tsunami is a sea wave triggered by a violent displacement of the ocean floor, such as vertical displacement of the seafloor along a fault. Underwater earthquakes, submarine volcanic eruptions or landslides can cause tsunami. Tsunami waves have very long wavelengths (crest-to-crest) and can be enormous (as large as 60 miles/100 kilometers). The height of a tsunami in the open ocean is very low (generally less than 1.5 feet/0.5 meters), while the speed of the tsunami is very high. As it approaches a shallow coastline, its speed is reduced, but the height of the tsunami increases drastically, causing devastation on land.

  Liquefaction

  How much can surface and subsurface material contribute to earthquake damages? Like many other physical phenomena, the answer is, "It depends." Thick sequences of unconsolidated sediments, such as sand, mud, and artificial fill, greatly magnify ground shaking during an earthquake. Ground shaking transmits forces to building that most buildings are not designed and constructed to endure. Ground shaking results in extensive property damage. Bedrock is less likely to be affected by ground shaking than is unconsolidated material. Buildings constructed on bedrock sustain far less damage than those built on unconsolidated material. Other dangers also come from the ground during an earthquake. Buildings constructed on sandy soil prone to water saturation have the greatest potential for complete destruction, because water-saturated sandy soil is subject to a phenomena called liquefaction. During liquefaction, water-saturated soil behaves as a fluid rather than as a solid. It becomes incapable of supporting much weight. (Remember the soil module and the section of soil strength?)

  Fires

  Earthquakes cause fires. Even moderate ground shaking can break gas and electrical lines, sever fuel lines, and overturn stoves. Water pipes rupture, making it impossible to fight the earthquake-caused fires. The famous San Francisco earthquake in 1906 ruptured the city's main water pipes. Extensive fire damage was the result!

  

Tsunami Safety Tips

Tsunamis can wreak havoc on coastal populations and landscapes. The December 26, 2004, tsunami in the Indian Ocean claimed some 150,000 lives and cleared the landscape on millions of acres of oceanfront terrain. Here are some measures you can take to avoid trouble if you're caught in a tsunami.

Shoved ashore by the December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, a brightly painted fishing boat sits among the battered buildings of Nam Kem, a fishing village in Thailand. A massive 9.0-magnitude earthquake off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia, triggered the catastrophic tsunami.

Safety tips

• When in coastal areas, stay alert for tsunami warnings.
• Plan an evacuation route that leads to higher ground.
• Know the warning signs of a tsunami: rapidly rising or falling coastal waters and rumblings of an offshore earthquake.
• Never stay near shore to watch a tsunami come in.
• A tsunami is a series of waves. Do not return to an affected coastal area until authorities say it is safe.

Lightning

Lightning Can Strike Twice

Contrary to the common expression, lightning can and often does strike the same place twice, especially tall buildings or exposed mountaintops. Cloud-to-ground lightning bolts are a common phenomenon—about 100 strike Earth’s surface every single second—yet their power is extraordinary. Each bolt can contain up to one billion volts of electricity.

Contrary to the common expression, lightning can and often does strike the same place twice, especially tall buildings or exposed mountaintops. Cloud-to-ground lightning bolts are a common phenomenon—about 100 strike Earth’s surface every single second—yet their power is extraordinary. Each bolt can contain up to one billion volts of electricity.

This enormous electrical discharge is caused by an imbalance between positive and negative charges. During a storm, colliding particles of rain, ice, or snow increase this imbalance and often negatively charge the lower reaches of storm clouds. Objects on the ground, like steeples, trees, and the Earth itself, become positively charged—creating an imbalance that nature seeks to remedy by passing current between the two charges.

A step-like series of negative charges, called a stepped leader, works its way incrementally downward from the bottom of a storm cloud toward the Earth. Each of these segments is about 150 feet (46 meters) long. When the lowermost step comes within 150 feet (46 meters) of a positively charged object it is met by a climbing surge of positive electricity, called a streamer, which can rise up through a building, a tree, or even a person. The process forms a channel through which electricity is transferred as lightning.

More About Lightning

Interactive: Make Lightning Strike Lightning Safety Tips Photo Gallery: Lightning

Tornadoes

Tornadoes are vertical funnels of rapidly spinning air. Their winds may top 250 miles (400 kilometers) an hour and can clear-cut a pathway a mile (1.6 kilometers) wide and 50 miles (80 kilometers) long.

Twisters are born in thunderstorms and are often accompanied by hail. Giant, persistent thunderstorms called supercells spawn the most destructive tornadoes.

These violent storms occur around the world, but the United States is a major hotspot with about a thousand tornadoes every year. "Tornado Alley," a region that includes eastern South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, northern Texas, and eastern Colorado, is home to the most powerful and destructive of these storms. U.S. tornadoes cause 80 deaths and more than 1,500 injuries per year.

A tornado forms when changes in wind speed and direction create a horizontal spinning effect within a storm cell. This effect is then tipped vertical by rising air moving up through the thunderclouds.

The meteorological factors that drive tornadoes make them more likely at some times than at others. They occur more often in late afternoon, when thunderstorms are common, and are more prevalent in spring and summer. However, tornadoes can and do form at any time of the day and year.

Tornadoes' distinctive funnel clouds are actually transparent. They become visible when water droplets pulled from a storm's moist air condense or when dust and debris are taken up. Funnels typically grow about 660 feet (200 meters) wide.

Tornadoes move at speeds of about 10 to 20 miles (16 to 32 kilometers) per hour, although they've been clocked in bursts up to 70 miles (113 kilometers) per hour. Most don't get very far though. They rarely travel more than about six miles (ten kilometers) in their short lifetimes.

Tornadoes are classified as weak, strong, or violent storms. Violent tornadoes comprise only about two percent of all tornadoes, but they cause 70 percent of all tornado deaths and may last an hour or more.

People, cars, and even buildings may be hurled aloft by tornado-force winds—or simply blown away. Most injuries and deaths are caused by flying debris.

Tornado forecasters can't provide the same kind of warning that hurricane watchers can, but they can do enough to save lives. Today the average warning time for a tornado alert is 13 minutes. Tornadoes can also be identified by warning signs that include a dark, greenish sky, large hail, and a powerful train-like roar.

More About Tornadoes

Article: Chasing Tornadoes Tornado Safety Tips Photo Gallery: Tornadoes Photo Gallery: Tornado Destruction Video: Tornado Montage Video: Tornado Turnpike

Global Warming Fast Facts

Global warming, or climate change, is a subject that shows no sign of cooling down. Here's the lowdown on why it's happening, what's causing it, and how it might change the planet.

Is It Happening?

Yes. Earth is already showing many signs of worldwide climate change.

• Average temperatures have climbed 1.4 degrees Fahrenheit (0.8 degree Celsius) around the world since 1880, much of this in recent decades, according to NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies.

• The rate of warming is increasing. The 20th century's last two decades were the hottest in 400 years and possibly the warmest for several millennia, according to a number of climate studies. And the United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports that 11 of the past 12 years are among the dozen warmest since 1850.

• The Arctic is feeling the effects the most. Average temperatures in Alaska, western Canada, and eastern Russia have risen at twice the global average, according to the multinational Arctic Climate Impact Assessment report compiled between 2000 and 2004.

• Arctic ice is rapidly disappearing, and the region may have its first completely ice-free summer by 2040 or earlier. Polar bears and indigenous cultures are already suffering from the sea-ice loss.

• Glaciers and mountain snows are rapidly melting—for example, Montana's Glacier National Park now has only 27 glaciers, versus 150 in 1910. In the Northern Hemisphere, thaws also come a week earlier in spring and freezes begin a week later.

• Coral reefs, which are highly sensitive to small changes in water temperature, suffered the worst bleaching—or die-off in response to stress—ever recorded in 1998, with some areas seeing bleach rates of 70 percent. Experts expect these sorts of events to increase in frequency and intensity in the next 50 years as sea temperatures rise.

• An upsurge in the amount of extreme weather events, such as wildfires, heat waves, and strong tropical storms, is also attributed in part to climate change by some experts.

Are Humans Causing It?

continued

Global Warming Pictures-2

Collections of Images which can show you impact/effect of Global Warming

Evidence of Global warming

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Father and son (6-8) in kitchen with recycling, smiling.



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Icebergs in the Weddell Sea off the east coast of the Antarctic Peninsula. Ice is melting in this area of Antarctica at an alarming rate,probably due to Global Warming.



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Icicles admidst the snow.



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Orange and Blue Recycling units in the UK.

Global Warming Pictures

Collections of Images which can show you impact/effect of Global Warming

Evidence of Global warming

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Businessman drinking bottled water in dry lake bed.



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Car filled with recycling.



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Cracked Earth - Global Warming.



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Cyclist on Tewkesbury Road, Gloucester, Flooded in July 2007.



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Dead fish lying on cracked mud.

Global Warming Research - Do You Recognize the 3 major goals for global warming research

Global warming research has been divided into 3 major goals

Global warming research concluded rapid increase in the consumption of fossil fuels, level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been steadily increasing. Many great scientist have projected that if greenhouse gases doesn't stopped from increasing in the atmosphere, than it could effect negatively on and it is very critical suitation now to investigate about this important problem. Concerned orgatnisation must do something on this and should provide reliable assessment of current and future changes in global climate.


As this global warming research have many different goal to achieve but one of the main goal is to provide reliable and quantitative projection of global warming.





Let's divide global warming research into three different goal to make it simple for you:

First gloal(G1) is to reduce the uncertainty while determining the appropriate response of climate changes in real time (which could help the concerned localities to intimate from calamities) concentration of greenhouse gases and aerosols in theatmosphere, elucidating the physical mechanism of global warming.


Second gloal(G2) is to develop model for an atmosphere-ocean-land coupled which have high performance through numerical experiments and comparison of the outputs with the observed analyses.


Third Goal(G3) is to get detailed information about the chemical and physical mechanisms, which are responsible for the large climactic change of the geological past.


It also attempts to evaluate and validate the sensitivity of model climate through paleoclimate simulations. The primary tools of these groups are general circulation models of both the atmosphere and ocean and the coupled atmosphere-ocean-land models.

Global Warming Research Group [First gloal(G1)]

Figure: The distribution of future precipitation change projected with CCSR/NIES/FRCGC climate model. The blue region indicates precipitation increase, while the red indicates decrease.



This group explores the physical mechanism of future changes of weather and climate, which occur in response to the increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. It will thus contribute to the reduction of the uncertainty in projections of these changes. Specifically, the project will investigate how the behavior of tropical and extra-tropical cyclones, monsoon, and the baiu front, which have substantial impacts on the Asian climate, are influenced by the climate change with a high-resolution climate model. The response of cloud distribution and thickness to the climate change, which affects strongly the amplitude of the future warming, will be examined with a climate model and observational data analysis. The possibility of weakening of the Atlantic deep ocean circulation in response to the climate change will also be investigated.


These studies are conducted as joint projects with the Center for Climate System Research of the University of Tokyo (CCSR) and the National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES) and with the Meteorological Research Institute (MRI).

Coupled Model Development Group [Second gloal(G2)]

One of the main goals of FRCGC is the development of a coupled atmosphere-ocean-land model which can reproduce climate variability at various time scales. Cooperation between specialists in each research field related to the climate system is essential to further understanding of the various physical mechanisms involved in climate change, and to ensure that each process is accurately represented in the model. The coupled model development group has been formed within the Global Warming Research Program so that it works as the central core team in the coupled model development. Our group will collaborate closely with researchers in related organizations outside FRCGC, as well as with other members of the Global Warming Research Program and FRCGC, with the aim of developing the best model to date. The coupled model will be open for use by researchers inside and outside FRCGC under a certain guideline of usage.

Paleoclimate Research Group [Third gloal(G3)]

Using a hierarchy of climate models with varying degrees of complexity, this project will explore the physical and chemical processes that control past changes of climate, ice sheet extent and oceanic circulation. It also validates climate models based upon the simulation of the climates of geological past such as the last glacial maximum and the late Cretaceous period.


The emphasis of this project is also on the quantitative assessment of the astronomical theory of glacial/interglacial fluctuation of global climate during the Quaternary. Using coupled or uncoupled ocean-atmosphere-continental ice sheet models of varying degrees of complexity, this project inquires why the changes of Earthеs orbit around the Sun had an enormous impact upon the fluctuation of ice volume and global climate. In addition, this project will attempt to project future changes in Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets associated with global warming.


These studies are conducted in close collaboration with the Center for Climate System Research (CCSR) of the University of Tokyo.

15 tried-and-tested methods for Global Warming Solutions

Comprehensive list of solutions for Global Warming

We are living in modernized world and we have lots resources and technologies to reduce the threat of global warming. Global Warming Solutions are always available that will give boost to International economy by creating various jobs, saving consumers money, and protecting our national security. If we invest in renewable energy and energy efficiency programs, than we can have better day tomorrow. Increasing the efficiency of the cars we drive, we can take essential steps toward reducing our dependence on oil and other fossil fuels that cause global warming for most than ever.

1. Start burying stuff on a massive scale

The whole problem with global warming starts with digging up and burning the carbon from plants and animals, in the form of coal and oil, that has been buried for millions of years. So two German scientists have a solution: Start burying stuff on a massive scale.

2. Use Energy efficient home appliances

Every single Individual can make big differences which will in turn give a impact on global climate change in a positive or negative way. Your family and you don't have to stop using heat-trapping emitting products like appliances, industrial equipment and buildings for reducing global warming level, but making clever choices to select energy-efficient products for your use, Which might cost you more than usual, but often it will pay back you into the form of energy savings within a couple of years. Most of us have bought an Energy Star appliance or two, and have seen firsthand how much money and energy they can save.

3. Plant 3.8 million square miles of forest every year

One of the most important global warming solution is plant 3.8 million square miles of forest every year to counteract current global carbon dioxide emissions.

4. Unplug appliances which is not in use

Unplug seldom-used appliances, like an extra refrigerator, A/C, cooler etc which you doesn't use frequently.

5. Unplug your charger

Unplug your chargers when you're not charging any pda's, cell phones, digital cameras and other gadgets.

6. Switch off T.V. and home theater from power strips

Switch off televisions, home theater equipment, and stereos by using power strips When it is ideal(not in use).

7. Keep your computer on sleep and hibernate mode

Set your computer to "sleep mode" feature, Which enables your computer to use very much less power as compared to usual it takes. Hibernating computers can make you able to save more energy than enabling your computer to sleep mode as it shuts down your computer by saving your work at the same state.

8. Put lights off when not in use

Don't forget to putt off the switch of lights when you leave a room. Practice the same in your offices/workplaces.

9. Use Energy Star compact fluorescents

Don't use any bulbs which require high energy, there is a solution for this use Energy Star compact fluorescents, which have been concluded that it is best for quality and longevity. If you swap the five standard light bulbs you use most for energy-saving compact fluorescents, you can save roughly $60 each year on electricity.

10. Change Air filters on timely basis

By changing air filters and keeping air conditioner coils clean can decrease emission of co2 in Air.

11. Use Renewable power resources(if applicable)

Now it is permissible to use the power to choose their own energy supplier for any consumer. If it is applicable in your selected area or sector, Select a supplier who uses renewable power resources, like solar, wind, low-impact hydroelectric, or geothermal to generate energy(electricity).

12. Keep the tires on your car adequately expanded

You might be driving you car with out taking care of your vehicle Tires. You have to Keep the tires on your car adequately expanded(inflated) and so u can save lots of carbon-di-oxide as well as wealth.

13. Use Hybrid and Fuel Efficient Car

Buy Hybrid Car and Fuel Efficient Car which can increase your fuel efficiencies. Will decrease level of CO2 and the most important thing your wealth.

14. Avoid eating of chemically produced foods

Don't eat chemically produced foods which is produced in the modern agriculture world now. This kind of food pollute the water supply and require energy to produce while productions.

15. Increase the usage of Recyclable products

Use Recycled products and goods such as papers, plastic bags and other related stuffs.

BPA in Plastic - Banned in Canada

Bisphenol-A, or commonly called BPA, is a chemical that is commonly found in polycarbonate plastics. BPA is a “monomer” that is used in the chemical polymerization of polycarbonate. Polycarbonate is a plastic that is very rigid and commonly used in applications where strength and rigidity are important. BPA is used in many other plastic synthesis applications, such as polyesters, polysulfones, and polyether ketones, as an antioxidant in some plasticizers, and as a polymerization inhibitor in PVC. Applications where polycarbonate, and hence BPA, is used is in baby and water bottles, sports equipment, medical and dental devices, dental composite (white) fillings and sealants, lenses, and household electronics. As you can see, consumers have a large exposure to BPA.

BPA has been used in manufacturing of plastics since the 1930s. Suspected of being hazardous to humans since use began, concerns about the use of bisphenol A in consumer products grabbed headlines in 2008 when several governments issued reports questioning its safety, and some retailers pulled products made from it off their shelves. Just last week, after years of public protest and mounting scientific evidence, the government of Canada made a precedent-setting announcement by banning a known toxic chemical from baby bottles.

BPA has been found to leach out of products such as baby bottles and the lining of some food cans. Most recently, a study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association linked, for the first time, ’normal’ levels of BPA in a large human population in the U.S. with higher risk of heart disease and diabetes.

The Canadians have already begun to remove this dangerous chemical from the consumer market, but what is being done here in the US? Well, as with many dangerous chemicals in the consumer market, the cost to the chemical industry is very large, and therefore the move to safer alternatives will be a long and hard fought battle. Unfortunately, the consumers cannot expect that the chemical industry has their best interest at heart. An example of this was in the banning of arsenic-based wood preservatives in the consumer market. For years it was known that arsenic causes cancer and that pressure-treated leaches arsenic into humans and the environment. What was done? Nothing for a long period. Only when the EPA got involved did action take place to get this dangerous chemical out of the consumer market. It can be expected that the same process will take place with BPA.

What can you do as a consumer? Educate yourself on BPA and using BPA-free plastics. There are plenty of alternatives out there. Visit Safe Mama for a list of BPA-free containers.

Chlorofluorocarbon - A Great Story

Chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, is a synthetic chemicals that are odourless, non-toxic, non-flammable, and chemically inert. The first CFC was synthesized in 1892, but no use was found for it until the 1920s. Their stability and apparently harmless properties made CFCs popular as propellants in aerosol cans, as refrigerants in refrigerators and air conditioners, as degreasing agents, and in the manufacture of foam packaging. They are now known to be partly responsible for the destruction of the ozone layer. In 1987, an international agreement called the Montreal Protocol was established; it was one of the first global environmental treaties and it banned the use of chemicals responsible for ozone damage, such as CFCs in aerosols and refrigerants. When CFCs are released into the atmosphere, they drift up slowly into the stratosphere, where, under the influence of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, they react with ozone (O₃) to form free chlorine (Cl) atoms and molecular oxygen (O₂), thereby destroying the ozone layer which protects the Earth’s surface from the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays. The chlorine liberated during ozone breakdown can react with still more ozone, making the CFCs particularly dangerous to the environment. CFCs can remain in the atmosphere for more than a hundred years. Replacements for CFCs are being developed, and research into safe methods for destroying existing CFCs is being carried out.

When CFCs were determined to be detrimental to the atmosphere, companies such as Honeywell, who manufactured CFCs, were forced to comply with the Montreal Protocol and develop safer alternatives for refrigeration in the late 80s. The same issue arose with arsenic in treated lumber 4 years, ago. However, the phase out existing lumber will continue to expose consumers to the carcinogen, arsenic.

Please visit www.arsenichometest.com to determine if your treated lumber contains arsenic.

Top 10 steps to Create Global Warming Awareness

1. Use less produce able Carbon Dioxide bulbs or lightings

Don’t use fluorescent bulbs as it takes high ratio of energy to output large amount of lights. So replace it with less energy consumable light bulbs. Scientist has discovered that if we use CFL bulb than we can lower down nearly 700 pounds of carbon dioxide out of the air over the bulb's lifetime. It use only a quarter of the energy consumed by conventional bulbs.

2. Efficient usage of Home Appliances

In home we are using energy more than required and it resulting wastage of energy. As we get energy by power plants, which burn fossil fuel to power our electric products. Making it burn outputs air pollution and contributes to smog, acid rain and global warming. If we use less energy definitely we will be saving money as well as energy.

The American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy estimates that if each of us increases the energy-efficiency in our major appliances by 10 - 30%, we'll release the demand for electricity by the equivalent of 25 large power plants!

3. Buy power saving Appliances

While you go for shopping for any electric appliances don’t buy appliances which use power above than average use specially appliances such as Refrigerator, Stove, Washer/Dryer, Air Conditioners, Water Heater, Computers and Home Office Equipment. Buy which has highest energy efficiency rating specified by any experts or sources.

By using appliances marked with Energy Star Logo can help us to save 15 percent of energy than the federal requirement.

Energy Star is the symbol for energy efficiency. It's a label created by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Department of Energy to help consumers save money and minimize air pollution.

4. Mineralize the energy needed for heating

USA Scientist concluded that heating and cooling systems in the U.S.A. emit into the atmosphere more than millions of tons of carbon dioxide each year, which increasing the % of Global Warming rates. By decreasing the usage appliances we can save lots of energy which emits heat.

5. Save your fuel while driving

You can’t image that you can manage to save your fuel 30% by simple vehicle maintenance and attention to your style of driving in an appropriate way. You should take care of for saving fuel by: Don’t drive aggressively, Drive steadily at posted speed limits, Avoid idling your vehicle, Make sure your tires are properly inflated, Select the right gear, Service your vehicle regularly and much more.

6. Drive less and Use public transports more

If you try to drive less and walk more than it would be great contribution towards saving energy and creating global warming awareness. You should try travel by taking the bus, riding a bike, or walking. Try consolidating trips to the mall or longer routine drives. Encourage car-pooling.

7. Paint your Home according to Seasons

Paint your home a light color if you live in a warm climate, or a dark color in a cold climate. This can contribute saving up to 5000 pounds of carbon dioxide per year.

8. Recycle every material

Try not to use products and materials which are not recyclable. Recycling saves energy, landfill space and natural resources. Increase usage of recycled materials such as paper & cardboard, plastic, glass, aluminum, steel & copper. Visit your local recycling center and find out what materials they accept for recycling. For your convenience use plastic bags or totes to store materials for recycling.

9. Eat more vegetarian meals than non-vegetarians

Avoid eating non-vegetarian food as it is not good for human health as well as to the planet. Try to this meal to increase your contribution towards Global Warming Awareness: Nutburgers, Irish Colcannon, Tofu Tamale Pie, Tofu Loaf, Grilled Polenta with Portabello Mushrooms, Vegetable Fajitas and many more.

10. Choose clean Energy Options

If you can choose your electricity supplier, pick a company that generates at least half its power from wind, solar energy and other renewable sources.

2 greenhouse gases on the rise worry scientists

Carbon dioxide isn't the only greenhouse gas that worries climate scientists. Airborne levels of two other potent gases — one from ancient plants, the other from flat-panel screen technology — are on the rise, too. And that's got scientists concerned about accelerated global warming.

The gases are methane and nitrogen trifluoride. Both pale in comparison to the global warming effects of carbon dioxide, produced by the burning of coal, oil and other fossil fuels. In the past couple of years, however, these other two gases have been on the rise, according to two new studies. The increase is not accounted for in predictions for future global warming and comes as a nasty surprise to climate watchers.

Methane is by far the bigger worry. It is considered the No. 2 greenhouse gas based on the amount of warming it causes and the amount in the atmosphere. The total effect of methane on global warming is about one-third that of man-made carbon dioxide.

Methane comes from landfills, natural gas, coal mining, animal waste, and decaying plants. But it's the decaying plants that worry scientists most. That's because thousands of years ago billions of tons of methane were created by decaying Arctic plants. It lies frozen in permafrost wetlands and trapped in the ocean floor. As the Arctic warms, the concern is this methane will be freed and worsen warming. Scientists have been trying to figure out how they would know if this process is starting.

It's still early and the data are far from conclusive, but scientists say they are concerned that what they are seeing could be the start of the release of the Arctic methane.

After almost eight years of stability, atmospheric methane levels — measured every 40 minutes by monitors near remote coastal cliffs — suddenly started rising in 2006. The amount of methane in the air has jumped by nearly 28 million tons from June 2006 to October 2007. There is now more than 5.6 billion tons of methane in the air.

"If it's sustained, it's bad news," said MIT atmospheric scientist Ron Prinn, lead author of the methane study, which will be published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters Oct. 31. "This is a heads up. We're seeing smoke. It remains to be seen whether this is the fire we're really worried about.

"Whenever methane increases, you are accelerating climate change," he said.

By contrast, nitrogen trifluoride has been considered such a small problem that it's generally been ignored. The gas is used as a cleaning agent during the manufacture of liquid crystal display television and computer monitors and for thin-film solar panels.

Earlier efforts to determine how much nitrogen trifluoride is in the air dramatically underestimated the amounts, said Ray Weiss, a geochemistry professor with Scripps Institution of Oceanography and lead author on a nitrogen trifluoride paper. It is set to be published in Geophysical Letters in November.

Nitrogen trifluoride levels in the air — measured in parts per trillion — have quadrupled in the last decade and increased 30-fold since 1978, according to Weiss, who is also a co-author of the methane paper.

It contributes only 0.04 percent of the total global warming effect that man-made carbon dioxide does from the burning of fossil fuels.

But nitrogen trifluoride is one of the more potent gases, thousands of times stronger at trapping heat than carbon dioxide. Methane is more than 20 times more potent than carbon dioxide on a per molecule basis. Carbon dioxide remains the most important gas because of its huge levels and rapid growth.

Still, methane and the potential of future increases is a worry, Weiss and others say.

Its recent increase coincides with anecdotal evidence of more methane being released in the shallow parts of the Arctic Ocean. A scientific survey in late summer found methane levels in the east Siberian Sea up to 10,000 times higher than normal, said Orjan Gustafsson, an environmental scientist at Stockholm University who has just returned from the six-week survey.

Prinn's data are consistent with the early results of "whole fields of methane bubbles" that Gustafsson said he found last month.

The highest methane level increases were seen in monitoring stations in Alert, Canada, which with recent anecdotal evidence points to plants in permafrost thawing and decaying.

Stanford University environmental scientist Stephen Schneider cautioned that the recent increase is new and that "it is pretty hard to be very confident of any trend or big story yet on methane."

Methane levels have kept scientists guessing for the past decade. They were on the rise until about 1997, then soared in 1998 and then leveled off until jumping again in 2006.

Wind Energy – A Viable Source

Wind power is one of the most efficient alternative energy sources to combine with solar, especially out in the middle of a total self-sustainability project. Because when there is sun; there isn’t always wind, but when there is wind, there isn’t always sun, so the two systems (solar/wind) seem to be compliment with each other. Wind energy is now attractive for many reasons – it is renewable, clean and scalable.

A bright future for wind energy

The economics of wind energy are already strong, despite the relative youth of the industry. The downward trend in costs is predicted to continue. The strongest influence will be exerted by the downward trend in wind turbine prices. As the world market in wind turbines continues to boom, wind turbine prices will continue to fall.

The global wind energy market is expanding rapidly, creating opportunities for employment through the export of wind energy goods and services.

For additional information please refer to DoE’s excellent resource on Wind Energy: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/

Solar Energy

Sun is the source of almost all forms of energy including fossil, hydro-electric, wind and solar energy. Although we are currently dependant on fossil fuels, sunlight itself is a tremendous source of energy which is untapped. There is enough potential energy in just one hour of sunlight to power the electrical needs of the entire world for a full year. Now imagine if we could harness this inexhaustible source of energy. Solar energy is also a clean source with no emissions. One solar water heater can reduce global warming gas emissions equivalent of one car.

With the recent developments in technology, solar energy systems are scalable for large and small uses, require no maintenance. Most importantly, with government tax incentives and rebates, solar energy is financially viable.

Energy is a necessity and clean renewable energy is an obligation to our earth and our future. Solar energy is currently available, cost effective and clean. Hence it is time to adopt solar energy systems.

Biomass

What is it and how can it be used?

Biomass is the organic matter produced by plants. Also it refers to other organic wastes like animal waste, food-processing by-products etc. Everything that is biodegradable is biomass. The solar energy trapped by these plants can be converted to electricity or fuel.

Renewed Interest in Biomass

Three main factors are responsible for the renewed interest in biomass - economics, environmental concerns and national security.

First, economics is the strongest driver in renewed interest in biomass fuels and chemicals. New advances in biotechnology and bioprocesses, such as those demonstrated at BECON, can dramatically reduce the costs of producing biochemicals.

Second, biomass fuels generally have less impact on the environment than fossil fuels, such as coal and oil.

Producing fuels and chemicals from biomass is not a new concept. Cellulose, ethanol, methanol, vegetable oils and a host of other biomass-based chemicals have been in use since the 1800's to make products like paint, glue, adhesives, synthetic cloth and solvents. It was not until the 1930's and 40's that petrochemicals began to dominate the market and displace chemicals and products derived from biomass.

BIO - GAS

The National Project on Bio - Gas Development (NPBD) which caters to the setting up of family type Bio - Gas plants is a central sector scheme and is point number 19(d) of the 20 Point Programme. It has the following objectives :

• To provide fuel for cooking purposes and organic manure to rural households.
  
  
• To mitigate the drudgery of rural women, reduce pressure on forests and accentuate social benefits.
  
  
• To improve sanitation in villages by linking sanitary toilets with Bio-Gas plants.

The Rate of subsidy is given below:

Capacity of the Plant	Subsidy for SC/ST, SF/MF Western Ghats notified hilly areas.	Subsidy for others
1 Cu.m. to 10 Cu.m.	2300	1800

Additional subsidy for the linking Bio-Gas plants with sanitary toilets is Rs. 500/- per plant.

source:

District Rural Development Agency (DRDA)

Celeb speak in india on green.ndtv.com

Abhishek Bachchan, actor We must save our environment for the future of our children. I care, do you? Join the NDTV Campaign. Leander Paes, tennis player Our Children are the next generation, and it's our responsibilty to keep the planet clean and give our children a better environment to grow up in, please join me and NDTV in this Go Green Campaign, the largest environment campaign in India. Kapil Sibal, Union Minister When you build your next house, conserve the water that nature provides you. Join the NDTV Toyota Campaign. I care...do you? Baichung Bhutia, football player I have scored many crucial goals in my life but the most important goal right now is to save our environment. Join the NDTV Toyota environment campaign for a greener tomorrow. Harman Baweja, actor Cut down the electricity in your house and save the environment and join the NDTV campaign. Lisa Ray, actor I want to ask you all to refill your plastic bottles. Don't keep buying them, we don't have any place to put them and as a result they only end up mucking up our environment. God knows we need more space and clean air to breathe. Join the NDTV-Toyota campaign for a greener, fresher and plastic free tomorrow. Shobhaa De, author I prefer candles to electricity. So switch off today for a better tomorrow. Join the NDTV-Toyota Environment Campaign. John Abraham, actor On World Environment Day, I pledge to use my car less and my bike more, so I can save petrol and reduce carbon emissions. So let us all make a difference. Join the NDTV Campaign to save the environment. Narain Karthikeyan, Sportsman Let us start taking care of our earth today. Join the NDTV green movement for a better tomorrow. Zila Khan, Singer Please join NDTV save the environment campaign for a greener future. Jeffrey Archer, Author Let us not kill ourselves. What we do to the environment today will impact generations to come. I’m delighted to support NDTV in this amazing adventure. Wishing you the very best of luck. Amaan and Ayaan Ali Bangash- Sarod players You do not need to go far away to do something for the environment. You can do it right here in your neighbourhood park. Plant a tree today, for a greener tomorrow.