Environment & Man

A letter by Late Smt. Indira Gandhi on Environment

2010-07-28T03:00:00.000-07:00

By:

Smt. Indira Gandhi
(late Prime Minister of India)
Plenary Session of United Nations Conference on Human Environment
Stockholm 14th June, 1972

It is indeed an honor to address this Conference-in itself a fresh expression of the spirit which created the United Nations-concern for the present and future welfare of humanity. It does not aim merely at securing limited agreements but at establishing peace and harmony in life-among all races and with Nature. This gathering represents man's earnest endeavour to understand his own condition and to prolong his tenancy of this planet. A vast amount of detailed preparatory work has gone into the convening of this Conference guided by the dynamic personality of Mr. Maurice Strong the Secretary General.

I have had the good fortune of growing up with a sense of kinship with nature in all its manifestations. Birds, plants, stones were companions and, sleeping under the star-strewn sky, I became familiar with the names and movements of the constellations. But my deep interest in this our `only earth' was not for itself but as a fit home for man.

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Man and His Environment

2010-07-28T02:57:00.001-07:00

Every year millions of people flock to the sandy beaches of Florida in hopes of surf, sun and fun. The things that one can do at the beach are almost unlimited: picnicking, touring the ocean on a motor boat, fishing, snorkeling, or just playing games on the beach. Amidst all the fun it is hard to think about the effects this has on the environment. Even the simplest picnic is problematic to the ecosystem; there is almost always litter left behind, either accidentally or purposely. With a high gust of wind a sandwich bag could fall into the water and pose a threat to wildlife. Eighty percent of all marine pollution comes from human activities on land. According to Scholastic Update, five major sources of ocean pollution are: runoff from land 44%, air pollution 33%, shipping 12%, dumping wastes 10%, offshore oil production 1%.

A prime example of this would be human impact on the loggerhead sea turtle which may mistake a sandwich bag for a jellyfish, one of their primary sources of food, and try to eat it. Upon ingestion, however, the turtle may choke and die. The mere presence of all the people found on the beach provides another problem for the turtle. In reproduction the sea turtle lays it's eggs deep in the sand of the beach, however with all the millions of people walking on the beach, a nest of eggs is likely to be destroyed either by a person walking by or an umbrella pole placed into the sand. Another threat to the sea turtle is the bright lights from lamp poles and buildings. When the new turtles hatch at night they mistake the bright lights for the moon and head away from the water towards the city. In this case death is inevitable; in order for the sea turtles to survive they must make it to the water before the gulls can have them for a meal.

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Man and Environment

2010-07-28T02:56:00.000-07:00

By Asst. Dr. Nantana Gajaseni

Life = biosystems organized by interactions between biological components interacting with physical environments, and become a unified whole with capacity to maintain homeostasis and self-perpetuation

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Man in Relation to His Environment

2010-07-28T02:54:00.000-07:00

By Keshav Malik

Conditions influencing development or growth is how the dictionary defines the word environment. For the plant, as we know, sunlight, air and water are the environment. For insects and animals topography, climate, food resources as also the proximity of different animal species, or man, is the environment. Changes in the relationship or balance of any of these several factors determine the behaviour of the plant or the animal, although this becomes acutely evident only in the long run.

The real environment

Now the environments that influence or determine plants and animals also mould human nature. But for the purposes of this workshop, as indeed in any context, the generality of men are rather less concerned with these environments and more with the vital human forces or factors fatefully shaping man. If I may say so, man’s real environment is men. It is social behaviour that conditions human development in any crucial sense of that term. And what is it that moulds social behaviour — ideas, beliefs, notions, biases, presuppositions? A child is born to all these and his unfolding character and physical nature reflect his mental inheritance. This is his real environment. All outwardly observable behaviour, all notable action could be traced to habits planted or shaped by belief.

The record of nations with vast differences in flora and fauna and in climate has shown us amazing similarity in outlook, temperament and attitude. Nations close in the first factors have shown an equal diversity in characteristics. History is replete with instances of the so-called national characteristics of a people, at once ranging from peaceable to warlike, from earthy to other-worldly, at different periods of their existence. These notable changes are due to a great many factors, but here, as I said, we must pay attention to those factors that, for our purpose, are the prime movers. Changes in dynasties, foreign conquests, floods, the havoc of drought, all these go to condition and influence man. And the aggregate of thus influenced men perpetuate the attitudes and the characteristics of the single individual. But many of the above-mentioned factors are only the outer determinants that passively shape man. The active element is the conscious shaping of the individual from man’s own beliefs about himself, his nature, his destiny. It is these attitudes that determine man’s relations to his time and life. When a man believes in predestination, his attitudes and behaviour are complementary. When a man believes that man makes history he assists at or is crucial to his own becoming. In other words, the state and nature of human awareness at a point of time in a cultural milieu are all important in the moulding or adapting of man to the total environment.

Two states

Now man’s beliefs are expressed not always directly but through institutions, rituals, cults, ceremonials, and through the assertion of a host of group identities. These cultural or social artifices are almost of a hydraulic chemistry and of far-reaching effect on human conduct. As if in keeping with animal reflexes and instincts, they can through usage over time get to be solid, icy, inflexible, unpliable. In other words, they are not amenable to easy change or renovation. They perpetuate themselves because, in turn, human beings themselves are prone to act out of two different natures — the pre-rational and the rational, the one open to enquiry, prepared for adaptation. This second state, the fluid one, itself follows on a state of heightened awareness, of imaginative perception. It is to be in constant touch with essential human values, as also to be possessed of a realistic knowledge of the material means, in order so to effectuate those values. In the fluid state, as I term it, there is no sacrosanctity attached to means. Holiness inheres only in the essentials. On the other hand, in the ‘iced state’ of institutions the means themselves tend to become fixed, sacred; with the result that it becomes all but impossible to question them. Fresh adaptation, here, becomes quite improbable in relation to new environments. The truth of essential values is lost. Rigidity, inflexibility, conformity, these are the consequences.

Thus institutions, at once useful and inescapable in the pursuit of the necessary, the good or the truthful life, very often become ends in themselves. A great deal of human history is the chronicle of this predicament: that, on the one hand, without organizations and institution the fruits of human insight, ingenuity, intelligence cannot easily be handed down to the individual, and on the other, that once come into being the authority which organizations or those who hold power exert creates the logic of its own vested interest. But with luck, and given a degree of sophistication, these institutions remain what they are — means to serve the individual, materially or spiritually. At these moments in history civilization has a chance of being at its peak. The too anarchical individual tends to be asocial, whereas the individual well ensconced in the vestments of social organization tends to be authoritarian. Either way there is faulty adaptation in the essential growth and development of the human self. As one knows, the visions and insights of seers, saints, savants often get to be stratified in the narrow religious orders that follow them, so there is not too much room here for the mind, heart or spirit to move about. Similarly political or social organizations often frown on freedom of thought. It is solitary men really, therefore, who keep the ship of life on an even keel. Captains of state, kings, others, are good enough to guide the destiny of a nation in its race for survival. But from the long-term perspective they function within the confines of settled ideas and established, stratified power. No matter how civilized, the rulers are unable to break new ground. It is for this that men without organizational power but only with the power of their spirit, heart or mind chart the longer path. It is from these sources that better adaptations related to the deeper values are consummated.

Necessity and freedom

If necessity rules the choices of state, freedom does the movements of the men who bring about fresh adaptations to the environment. This freedom of the savant is not born of caprice but is subordinate to his adherence to certain self-transcending values. It is a question of opting for something which is not yet, for which the majority is not, to which the state is often opposed. Now to exist in such a condition of ostracism, aloneness or solitude and yet without any hatred or contempt for mankind is itself one of the supremely important factors in human evolution, in other words in the revolution of man’s inner being. It needs moral courage. And indeed courage, on a lower plane, is itself the means for animal survival. But, as we know, man does not live by mere survival; even when in a depressed state mankind lives for and by spirit. For no man is so abject that he is unaware of his human self; his pride or his sense of integrity is born of some trace of awareness, of consciousness — that is, in his being able to reflect on lasting values in the context of time and death. Awareness of self stems from the human capacity to stand back from oneself and to imagine one’s life as a non-person, and to imagine the other man as oneself. This is the inner situation that makes man human, above his normally animal, self-possessive nature. This it is, too, which ushers in the conflict of values in the human soul and a moral split between thought and act, between emotion and reason — which leads to a psychic sickness. But with self-discipline there may be a great inner joy, born of the conviction that goodness is its own reward, that to experience life intensely without possessing it is to live it richly enough. Now human history ever since settled society has been a saga of man attempting to transcend his narrower nature to attain the wider one. Since mankind at a certain stage of psychic development still does find life at the survival values good enough, but nevertheless comes to grief (meeting with the inevitable terrors of existence, destroyed in the endless conflicts of a divided mankind), the sensitive struggle to remind it either of a richer life as if offered by the arts and the life of the mind or of the religious one which helps draw men together. And it is in the light of this that new social orders are conceived. The fact is that the so-called self-surpassing values are far from practised. And yet, such is the logic of human evolution that they cannot be completely disowned, at least lip service needs to be paid to them. This is the reason for humans’ lying to themselves and to others. But lying is a good adaptive device for the impersonal state or for the individual acting on behalf of state or party, though not for the individual who is a person, and moral. The individual’s mortality, or rather his sensing of it, and a human organization’s relative immortality, makes the individual the moral agent of possible social conscience and deeper sentience. It is this state of richer awareness, of a loftier, more delicate perception, that is in constant danger of being destroyed by the collectivity. But then awareness is the sine qua non of human existence as distinct from the indifferent brute one.

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Stonehenge Had Neighboring, Wooden Twin—More to Come?

2010-07-28T02:52:00.000-07:00

"It will completely change the way we think about the Stonehenge landscape."

Evidence of a timber henge, shown in an artist's reconstruction, has been found near Stonehenge.

Illustration courtesy University of Birmingham

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Start of Civilization

2010-07-03T09:29:00.000-07:00

Neolithic Revolution (~12,000 BC)

The Neolithic (New Stone) Revolution occurred about 10,000 years ago and dramatically changed the way that early humans lived. Two important factors come out of the Neolithic Revolution:

The development of agriculture and
The domestication of animals.

These two changes allowed people to stay in one spot instead of wandering from place to place following their main food source (animals). Somehow Neolithic people learned how to plant and raise crops and keep and raise livestock for food. Now people were put in the situation of living together permanently and as a result much cooperation was needed for survival and civilizations started to arise.

Characteristics of a Civilization

With the Neolithic Revolution civilizations now began popping up in unsurprising locations - river valleys. These river valleys provided people with fertile soil due to their floods. These floods, combined with the new-found knowledge of farming and animal domestication, allowed for a stable food supply and so the Neolithic people settled down around these rivers. As these people lived together in one spot civilizations arose, which often shared theses common characteristics:

Advanced technical skills - Sometime around 3000 BC, the Neolithic peoples around these river valleys learned how to make and use bronze tools and weapons. This in part allowed these peoples to construct permanent shelters and homes since they no longer were nomads, following their food source and looking for caves as shelter.
A form of government - The floods that helped to provide the fertile soil for survival also posed a problem. The floods were sometimes massive and could wipe out an entire village if uncontrolled and farmers needed to get water to their fields during the dry season. As a result an irrigation system (dikes and canals) was necessary to control these waters. The construction of these projects required organization and cooperation among the Neolithic people on a massive scaled. So governments probably developed to direct these projects and to provide rules by which to live.
A division of labor - As agricultural productivity increased, fewer people were needed to work in the fields producing food (much like the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century in England). These "extra" people who weren't needed to farm could then become artisans, or merchants or traders and production of all sorts was able to increase thereby providing a better standard of living for all.
A calendar - Calendars were created out of the need to predict and know when the floods would arrive. Most of these early calendars were based on the cycle of the moon.
A form of writing - Writing systems developed to keep records, put down rules, and to pass on complex instructions (maybe for irrigation) to future generations. For example the Egyptians developed a system of writing called hieroglyphics and the Sumerians developed cuneiform.

Earth the Biography: Oceans

2010-07-03T09:25:00.000-07:00

The Early Earth and Plate Tectonics

2010-07-03T09:24:00.001-07:00

Earth Day 2010 - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

2010-04-21T21:48:00.000-07:00

Earth Day is a day designed to inspire awareness and appreciation for the Earth's environment. It was founded by U.S. Senator Gaylord Nelson as an environmental teach-in held on April 22, 1970.
Earth Day is celebrated in spring in the Northern Hemisphere and autumn in the Southern Hemisphere. Many communities celebrate Earth Week, an entire week of activities focused on environmental issues. The first Earth Week originated in Philadelphia in 1970 (starting April 16 and culminating on Earth Day, April 22.)Earth Day Network, a group that wishes to become the coordinator of Earth Day globally, asserts that Earth Day is now observed on April 22 on virtually every country on Earth.
World Environment Day, celebrated on June 5 in a different nation every year, is the principal United Nations environmental observance.
Earth Day 2010 will coincide with the World People's Conference on Climate Change, to be held in Cochabamba, Bolivia, and with the International Year of Biodiversity.

Man's effect on the environment

2010-01-21T06:40:00.000-08:00

Man has had many far-reaching effects on the environment over the years. Global warming, pollution and the damage to the ozone layer are a few of the major things that can be heard about in the news. Man has damaged the earth gradually over the years and this damage cannot be reversed, we are now trying to stop any more damage being caused to the environment. For example, hedgerows have been destroyed but now people have realised what effects this is having on the environment the government are paying farmers to replant them instead of fencing. Not all of man's effects on the environment are harmful some are beneficial. Conservation work is going on across the country and this is helping to preserve the wildlife and countryside that we have left. The expanding human population has placed a huge demand on the food production of the country. The resources are limited but the population is increasing quite rapidly so the problems are growing. The demand for food means that crops need to be perfect so the use of fertilisers and herbicides is increasing too.

One of the problems in the countryside affecting the environment is the disposal of effluent and other pollutants. The main type of waste that we have to dispose of is organic effluent particularly from farms and sewage works. This is disposed of in several ways, the main one being pumping it into the sea and rivers around the country. In more recent years sewage recycling plants have been developed to reuse the water in the waste. Water treatment works are used to treat the waste before it is pumped into the river or sea.

The disposal of the waste is accomplished in several ways. Direct removal into a stream or lake is the most commonly used means of disposal. In parts of the world that are faced with worsening shortages of water for both domestic and industrial use, authorities are reusing appropriately treated wastewater for, irrigation of non-edible crops, industrial processing, recreation, and other uses. In one such project, the Potable Reuse Demonstration Plant in Denver, Colorado, the treatment process uses normal primary and secondary treatment followed by lime clarification to remove suspended organic compounds. During this process, an alkaline state is created to improve the process. In the next step, re-carbonation is used to bring the pH level to neutral. Then the water is filtered through several layers of sand and charcoal, and ammonia is removed by ionisation. Pesticides and any other dissolved organic materials still present are absorbed by a granular, activated-carbon filter. Viruses and bacteria are then killed by ozonisation. At this stage the water should be cleansed of all contaminants, but, for added reliability, second-stage carbon absorption and reverse osmosis are used, and chlorine dioxide is added to obtain the highest possible water standard.

The other main place that effluent is disposed of from is industry. Industrial plants put their waste into the main drains, because they pump it into the main drains it has to be a particular pH i.e. neutral (between pH6 and pH10). If the pH fluctuates out of this range, there are valves along the main pipe line from the industrial works that close to prevent the effluent leaking into the main sewage system. The pH can then be regulated by either adding caustic soda (an alkaline) or hydrochloric acid to neutralise it again. If the valves did not close and the effluent were allowed to travel into the sewage works then it would kill all the nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria that break down the waste. The bacteria are very sensitive to the chemicals that are used and if these levels fluctuate too much, it will kill the bacteria and the whole decomposition process will be affected. The bacteria remove the ammonia in the effluent. There are filters in the water treatment works that sieve out a lot of the suspended solids and there are chemicals which are added to make the rest of the solids bind together with the help of bacteria so that they come to the surface and can then be filtered off. The water that eventually comes out is pumped from an outlet into the river unless it is to be recycled then it goes on for further cleansing. The effluent that is pumped into the streams gives the decomposers in the water a huge food supply, therefore they use up much of the oxygen and eutrophication - death of the waterway - results. The decomposers deprive the other organisms such as fish and crustaceans of oxygen causing them to die. This in turn affects the whole food chain.

Phosphates are products formed by the replacement of some or all of the hydrogen of a phosphoric acid by metals. Depending on the number of hydrogen atoms that are replaced, the resulting compound is described as a primary, secondary, or tertiary phosphate. Also known as trisodium phosphate, tertiary sodium phosphate is used as a detergent and water softener. Primary and secondary phosphates contain hydrogen and are acid salts. Phosphates are important to metabolism in both plants and animals. Primary calcium phosphate, Ca(H2PO4)2, is an ingredient of plant fertilisers. When it is used as a fertiliser it can be washed into the waterways by the rain and pollute the rivers and streams. Increasing attention has been focused on the environmentally harmful effects of phosphates in household detergents. Detergents containing phosphates are known to be water pollutants because phosphates are a primary nutrient of algae. When algae grows in excess, it can choke a lake or river and draw off needed oxygen from aquatic life. This is called eutrophication

Nitrates are also harmful to the environment. Calcium, sodium, potassium, and ammonium nitrates are used in fertilisers to provide a source of nitrogen for plant growth. If these nitrates get into the water flow then they can, like phosphates, have damaging effects on the life that live there.

Factory chimneys emit Sulphur Dioxide, which has to be monitored. Inside the chimneys are several filters that sift out the solids in the emissions. Sulphur dioxide emitted into the atmosphere by industrial processes is ultimately converted into dilute sulphuric acid, returning to Earth as acid rain. For this reason, sulphur dioxide is a major cause of air pollution. Acid rain is rain with a greatly lowered pH. Oxides of nitrogen are also emitted from car exhausts that also add to the formation of acid rain. The acid rain in turn comes down and erodes buildings and other things. In heavily industrialised areas of America, ladies have reported holes appearing in their tights when rain falls on them. In areas with plenty of limestone rocks, the effects are reduced because the acid reacts with the rocks and neutralises the rain. In areas without limestone, lakes become acidic, leading to the death of the wildlife. Trees are also killed as a direct result of acid rain. Many governments are ignoring the warnings and not controlling the emissions from their industry before it is too late.

Crude oil, known as petrol, is used in the manufacture of fertilisers, medicines, plastic, building materials, paints and to generate electricity. It is also used for the fuelling of transport such as cars and planes. Petrol contains hydrocarbons and sulphur. When the hydrocarbons and sulphur are burned for use they give off sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide. These gases are harmful to the environment. Sulphur dioxide forms sulphuric acid and causes acid rain, carbon dioxide adds to the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect means that the levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases that usually prevent heat loss from the earth are increasing. This results in raised temperatures on earth leading to partial melting of the polar ice caps. If the ice caps melted too much some countries would be flooded, if they were all to melt then the whole world would be underwater.

There is a need to produce more food for the population and a need to preserve the wildlife and the environment. It is essential to satisfy the needs of the expanding population but it is also essential to preserve the environment. Living organisms are dependent on each other, if a tiny little fungus or algae plants were destroyed then the rest of the food chain would be affected. The algae or fungi are the producers so the primary consumers have nothing to eat so they die and the secondary consumers then have nothing to eat so they die. Plants and can be used for many purposes which is why they are becoming extinct. Drugs have been derived from plants. Genetic variation also decreases with the loss of species and new genes can never be discovered e.g. for crop breeding. The reduction of trees is leading to more carbon dioxide in the air and therefore increasing global warming.

The government is trying to reverse some of the effects man has had on the environment by, for example, paying farmers to replace hedgerows in their fields which had previously been removed to make room for more crops. Factories have to monitor the amount of emissions that come from their chimneys very closely and if they emit too much sulphur dioxide or other harmful chemicals then the factory can be closed down. Factories also have to monitor the amount of chemicals that they pump into the drains, they have to neutralise the effluent before it is pumped into the main drainage system to prevent any chemicals getting into the main sewers and into the rivers and affecting the ecosystem of the rivers. Some waste can be recycled, at the water treatment works they can make the water clean enough, may be not to drink, but to water non-edible crops and for industrial processes and recreation.

Crop rotation is another way in which the land is being preserved a little more. Different crops are being grown in different places so that the same nutrients aren't being used from the same piece of soil every time and therefore the nutrients are being used in equal quantities. The nutrients in the soil then have time to replenish themselves over the years. In addition, natural fertilisers are being used like farmyard manure instead of phosphates and nitrates. This means that the nutrients are released slowly as they decay and therefore improve the structure of the soil.

The human population is expanding rapidly and the demand for food is increasing too. There are limited resources with which to produce this food so therefore the demand is greater then the production. Farmers are under pressure to produce more and more food. The crops they produce all have to be perfect, there can be no waste so herbicides and fertilisers have to be used to maintain the high production rate. The farmland has to be maintained, this is done with regular grazing of cattle to keep eating the grass and with ploughing to prepare the soil for re-use next time. Ploughing removes the plants that would compete with the crop and gives the seedlings the chance to establish themselves quickly and easily. Ploughing also helps to aerate the soil. Harrows are used to break up the lumps of soil and make the surface smooth. This allows the seedling to be planted at a consistent depth. The farmer uses herbicides to control the weeds among the crops, to do this he uses a crop sprayer. To harvest the crops a combine harvester would be used. This cuts down the crop and chops it and then it is pout into a tractor and trailer. Other crops such as potatoes and peas are harvested differently, peas with a pea viner which picks the peas from the rest of the plant. Potatoes are picked using a potato drill. The farmer will then use fertiliser or farmyard manure to replace the nutrients removed by the plants, they would use a muck spreader to do this. Cattle remove nutrients from the soil so it has to be fertilised regularly to maintain the productivity and allow the animals to eat.

The demand on agriculture to increase food production conflicts greatly with the need to protect the environment. Organic crops are becoming more popular as they don't have any fertilisers on them, which affect the environment. Many farmers are turning to organic crops and the government is introducing incentives to try to encourage farmers to grow organic food as it can be expensive. Interest free loans are being introduced for farmers who will convert their dairy farms to organic ones. Oilseed rape crushers have been introduced to produce organic oilseed rape. The oil is destined for human consumption and the by-products are for animal feed. This is to try to encourage organic oilseed rape to be grown in the UK as it is not currently and has to be bought outside the UK. Farmers are being offered money by the EU to meet agri-environmental measures. The scheme has been set up for the next seven years and is designed to improve the environment. Farmers are being paid to convert farmland into woodland. There are increasing fuel prices to try to discourage people from using their cars as much and protect the environment. But these prices are hitting farmers badly, as they can't afford to run their machinery to maintain and harvest their crops. These crops are ultimately our food therefore, the increasing fuel prices to protect the environment are preventing as much food being produced.

Organic food production seems to be a very good idea. It protects the environment as it doesn't involve the use of herbicides and fertilisers and it allows the farmers to carry on producing food in large enough quantities. The government incentives are helping farmers to become established in the organic farming trades. With organic food becoming more popular with the consumer, the demand for organic produce is increasing. Organic food tends to be more expensive as the entire crop isn't perfect but it is environmentally friendly.

Man's effects on the environment are many but the effects are being slowed down and where possible reversed. The consequences of many years of abuse to the earth are being realised and people are trying to do something about it. Tillage operations that prepare the soil for planting and control weeds expose bare soil to possible erosion by wind and water. An example is the Dust Bowl area of the United States. The planting of crops and raising of cattle here left the soil exposed, which led to extensive wind erosion during the 1930s. Erosion removes fertile soil and contributes to problems of air and water pollution. Several techniques are used to combat erosion. Crop rotation is also being increasingly used to hold soil in place between plantings. Still, many small-seeded crops require a finely worked seedbed, and soil erosion cannot be eliminated. The dust bowl cannot be used for crops or cattle now. If crop rotation and other land maintenance did not take place, this would happen to the land in the UK. Global warming is being reduced as much as possible by the reduction of toxic emissions and wastewater is being recycled instead of pumped into rivers and seas. Man is trying to reverse and slow down the effects on the environment although some things cannot be reversed.

References:

Biology Core - Mike Bailey and Keith Hirst

Encarta 98 Deluxe encyclopedia

Comptons Interactive Encyclopedia

Heinemann Advanced Biology - Ann Fullick

Farmers Weekly Aug 2000

Mission Green Earth

2010-01-16T00:05:00.000-08:00

Haiti Earthquake Aftermath

2010-01-14T22:35:00.001-08:00

ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT PPT

2010-01-14T22:33:00.000-08:00

See more presentations by shivajichoudhury | Upload your own PowerPoint presentations

Environment Forum PPT

2010-01-14T22:31:00.000-08:00

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Will the earth end on 21 December 2012?

2009-10-30T17:57:00.000-07:00

There has been a serious debate going on this subject for quite a few years all over the world. People say that all the popular religions indicate the end of the world on this day.

They even say that Nostradamus had given a similar prediction. They also claim the Mayan’s calendar ends on this day.

They give so many reasons for the end of the world. It could be the result of the third world war. It could be the result of drastic changes in the solar system. It could also be the result of huge natural calamities.

It is also said that the earth’s magnetic field is changing to a great extent and so on and on. They also say that there is a serious threat to earth by some comets and asteroids that are fast approaching towards the earth.

The earth has been surviving for millions and millions of years. It had experienced so many disasters in the past but never failed in its survival. Of course, there have been many earth faults and notable changes in the global phenomenon.

Will Earth Die a “Natural” Death?

2009-10-30T17:54:00.000-07:00

According to recent research, the devastating, although not very urgent, news on the long-term status of planet Earth is now in. Clara Moskowitz, a staff writer for Space.com, recently reported that new calculations suggest the Earth will be sucked into the Sun and burned to a crisp in 7.6 billion years (2008). The new “findings” come from work done by Robert Smith, former professor at the University of Sussex, in association with astronomer Klaus-Peter Schroeder.

Smith warned that while 7.6 billion years might seem like too far in the distant future to cause concern, things would get deadly several billions of years before that. He proposed that in about one billion years the Earth will be so close to the Sun that there will be “no atmosphere, no water and a surface temperature of hundreds of degrees, way above the boiling point of water” (as quoted in Moskowitz).

The reason for Earth’s expected demise is a slowing down of the Earth’s orbit caused by gravitational forces from the Sun as well as forces from gas that the Sun expels. As bleak as Earth’s eventual destruction sounds, Smith is still upbeat. Moskowitz reported: “Some scientists have proposed a scheme for down the road to use the gravity of a passing asteroid to budge Earth out of the way of the sun toward cooler territory, assuming there is life around at the time that is intelligent enough to engineer this solution” (2008). Concerning this bizarre solution, Smith commented that it sounds like science fiction, but “[i]f it is done right, that would just keep the Earth moving fast enough to keep it out of harm’s way. Maybe life could go on for as much as 7 billion years” (as quoted in Moskowitz).

The problem with all this doomsday talk is that the biggest factor in the equation is left out—God. Humans have become so conceited and filled with a false sense of importance that some actually think we not can only predict our planet’s ultimate destruction, but also postpone it if there are still some intelligent scientists (like present ones) who are around when the time comes.

The fallacy of this line of thinking was pointed out almost 2,000 years ago by the inspired apostle Peter. In his second epistle, Peter discussed scoffers who would say: “Where is the promise of His [Jesus’—KB] coming? For since the fathers fell asleep, all things continue as they were from the beginning of creation” (2 Peter 3:4). Notice the uniformitarian assumption of Peter’s scoffers. They assume that all things continue as they are now and will continue that way.

Apply that to Smith’s research. Since the Earth’s orbit is slowing down slightly at the present, he assumes that it will continue to do so for the next 7.6 billion years. But Peter reminds the scoffers that they are willfully forgetting something very important, “that by the word of God the heavens were of old, and the earth standing out of water and in the water, by which the world that then existed perished, being flooded with water” (2 Peter 3:5-6). The key factor in the world’s creation, preservation, and destruction is not ongoing, current natural processes, but the “word of God” that created the world and destroyed life on the Earth in the Flood of Noah. Peter concludes his thoughts by saying: “But the heavens and the earth which now exist are kept in store by the same word, reserved for fire until the day of judgment and perdition of ungodly men” (2 Peter 3:7).

When the Lord enacts His plan to destroy the physical Universe, including our planet Earth, then it will be destroyed, not before (see Butt, 2003). All uniformitarian theories about Earth’s eventual demise are vain mental gymnastics. Instead of looking 7.6 billion years into the future, we all should realize that the destruction of this physical Universe will come as a thief in the night (at any time). “Therefore, since all these things will be dissolved, what manner of persons ought you to be in holy conduct and godliness” (2 Peter 3:11)?

REFERENCES

Butt, Kyle (2003), “What Will Happen When Jesus Comes Again?,” [On-line], URL: http://www.apologeticspress.org/articles/2311.

Moskowitz, Clara (2008), “Earth’s Final Sunset Predicted,” Science.com, [On-line], URL: http://news.yahoo.com/s/space/20080226/sc_space/earthsfinalsunset predicted;_ylt=AtenKy4HBtxHEO3FFWp5w.kiANEA.

RAin water Harvesting

2009-03-17T18:13:00.000-07:00

The Northeastern hill ranges stretch over six Indian states Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya, extending over Bangladesh and northern Myanmar, touching the southern slopes of the Brahmaputra valley and the northern, eastern and southern slopes of the Barak valley. The Meghalaya plateau covers the entire state of Meghalaya and the Karbi hills of Assam. .

The climate and rainfall of the area varies considerably across the region. Encircled by hills and plateaus, rainfall varies even more than temperatures. The average annual rainfall reaches a peak of 13,390 mm in the Cherrapunji-Mawsynram region. But areas that fall in the rainshadow region of the Meghalaya plateau need irrigation. While the northern slopes of the Brahmaputra valley receive an annual average rainfall of 2,500 mm, the area south of the valley and the northern part of Meghalaya receive an annual rainfall of about 2,000 mm.

Distribution of the population in the Northeast is also very uneven. Within the plains there are pockets of very high population density, such as the Manipur plains (400 persons/sq km) and the Nowgong plains (302 persons/sq km). The vast hill tracts, however, have a low population density.

The water resources potential of the region is the largest in the entire country. Given its heavy rainfall, it also has abundant groundwater resources. But only a small part of the region has been studied to estimate the groundwater potential. The maximum scope for development of groundwater exists in Assam, Tripura and Arunachal Pradesh. The available surface water resources have hardly been tapped because of the rugged nature of the terrain. Hence, cultivation in the region is largely rainfed and jhum cultivation (shifting cultivation) has been widely adopted.2

Nonetheless, there are documented instances of some indigenous rainwater harvesting systems used for cultivation, of which some are ingenious. Settled agriculture is practised in the form of irrigated terrace cultivation in parts of Nagaland and a few villages of Meghalaya. Channels are dug to irrigate these fields. The other chief indigenous source of irrigation is the bamboo irrigation system found in parts of Meghalaya, and in some villages in the Mokokchung district of Nagaland

India debuts 'agricultural Wikipedia'

2009-01-23T16:57:00.000-08:00

Indian scientists have launched an 'agricultural Wikipedia' to act as an online repository of agricultural information in the country. The government-backed initiative, Agropedia, was launched last week (12 January). It aims to disseminate crop- and region-specific information to farmers and agricultural extension workers â€” who communicate agricultural information and research findings to farmers â€” and provide information for students and researchers.

The website currently contains information on nine crops — rice, wheat, chickpea, pigeon pea, vegetable pea, lychee, sugarcane, groundnut and sorghum — but its creators say that all agriculture-related topics will be eventually covered.

Content will be continually added and validated through review and analysis by invited agricultural researchers, in a manner similar to that used by Wikipedia and using open source tools, says V. Balaji, head of knowledge management and sharing with the International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), a partner in the project.

The site also houses blogs and forums where anyone can provide and exchange knowledge.

The 85 million-rupee (around US$17 million) project is being implemented over 30 months and is backed by the National Agricultural Innovation Project, a six-year government programme intended to modernise agriculture.

The World Bank and the Indian government have provided the funding for the project and six Indian agricultural and technology institutions are partners in the project, providing information and technological expertise.

India is considered a global leader in promoting innovative ways of using technology for farm and rural outreach, Balaji told SciDev.Net.

In the last five years close to 12,000 information technology-enabled rural information centres — some with Internet access — have been established but there is a lack of accessible agricultural information, he says.

It is hoped that even where farmers have no access to the Internet, the Agropedia information can be used as a basis for radio plays, for example, says Balaji.

Agropedia's lead architect, T. V. Prabhakar of the Indian Institute of Technology in Kanpur, initially envisioned the website as the equivalent of Wikipedia for global agriculture three years ago, but for now it will concentrate on India-specific information.

He says that the initial phase of the project — developing a mechanism to manage the vast repository of knowledge — is nearly completed, and the next step is to develop ways to disseminate the knowledge.

Trials will soon begin in six locations around the country.

Source : http://www.enn.com/top_stories/article/39141

Shree Padre-The Water MAN

2009-01-23T16:53:00.000-08:00

Mr. Shree Padre has made impressive strides in farm journalism. He is from Vaninagar, a village in Kerala bordering Karnataka. A farmer by profession, he has been associated with the publications of All India Areca Growers’ Association, Puttur (Karnataka State) since 1987. First with Areca News, a newsletter that became Adike Pathrike in November 1988. He had been the Chief Editor of this unique venture in farm journalism for more than a decade and at present he is its Executive Editor.

The initial efforts by Mr. Padre in prodding the farmers to come out with their innovations and experiences were met by reluctant responses. Subsequently he took the initiative to conduct workshops in farm journalism for farmers and the results were very much encouraging. The trained farmers not only began to write about their own farm experience, but also began to report, interview and narrate the farming experiences in their neighbourhood. By his radical and pro-farmer stance, Mr. Padre has given a new dimension to farm journalism in the country, setting aside the age-old notions of information supply, practiced by the official agencies.

Through Adike Pathrike, Mr. Shree Padre has turned the concept of “farmers first” into reality. His efforts through the journal are the fine Indian example of self-help journalism, widely acclaimed for its efficacy the world over, especially in rural communication for development. His talent in photography has helped in providing additional weightage to his write-ups. His style of writing is unique in Kannada journalism.

In recent years, Mr. Shree Padre is working persistently in the field of soil and water conservation in Karnataka and Kerala. He has been conducting awareness programmes on the theme, a unique effort in the region. He has been vigorously collecting and documenting information on rainwater harvesting from world over. Mr. Padre’s series of feature articles on soil and water conservation became an eye-opener for farmers and many experiments based on his articles have been yielding fruitful results in different places. He has written seven books (Six in Kannada and one in English) on rainwater harvesting. Vijaya Karnataka, a Kannada Daily carries his column on water conservation, Hanigoodisona every Wednesday.

To boost his efforts, Mr. Padre has initiated a water forum ‘Jalakoota’ in October 2001. The forum is involved in several activities on soil and water conservation including rainwater harvesting.

Mr. Padre successfully initiated a campaign against the hazardous endosulfan spraying on the cashew plantations in the Kasargod district of Kerala, which had serious repercussions on the health of the villagers.

Email: shreepadre@sancharnet.in
Tel: 91-8251-287234, 91- 04998 - 266148
Address:
Editorial Consultant, Adike Patrike
Post: Vaninagar, Via: Perla - 671 552
Kerala State, INDIA

His blog is: http://jeevajala.blogspot.com

Large differences in lifestyles

2009-01-23T16:45:00.000-08:00

The large differences in consumption rates indicate that there are large differences in lifestyle. The consumption rates are lowest for families that live in smaller homes and spend much of their time in the vicinity of the home. They travel less and shorter distances, and in their daily life they make less use of private cars than the others.
Many of the participants of the research project appreciated the comparisons between the various sectors of consumption.Such comparisons made it easier to see in which sectors the consumption rates could be reduced. Others found the results too superficial. Simple comparisons between sectors and with an average consumer were not enough.Participants wished to get more detailed information that could help them to make the right choices.

Some of the participants wanted to know the limit of sustainable consumption, the amount of natural resources that can be safely used by an individual. Based on the presently available information, the researchers cannot give any definite figures. However, it is obvious that less is better. The eco-efficiency discussion has brought forward goals on different levels. In a shorter time perspective, the consumption rates should be reduced down to one fourth of the present level, but a long-term target in the Western countries should be to reduce the consumption of natural resources down to one tenth of the present level.

DYNAMICS OF ERUPTIONS

2009-01-04T20:59:00.000-08:00

This section examines the variability of volcanic environments and the physical and chemical controls on eruption dynamics. Environments of volcanism are discussed in terms of plate tectonic theory. Image below is courtesy of Jeffrey Hulen.

Mt. Etna is Europe's highest volcano at 10,900 ft (3,516 m). This SeaWiFS satellite image was taken on Monday October 28 one day after Mt. Etna began to erupt. The image is taken from the perspective of looking across the Mediterranean Sea, toward the west - Albania and Greece are beneath Italy's "heel." The red arrows show the ash plume from the eruption moving to the south. Lava from the eruption toppled some ski resort facilities and power lines, but it failed to reach any of the several towns and villages, which lie all too close to the flanks of Mt. Etna. Courtesy of NASA.

Oceans

2009-01-04T20:57:00.000-08:00

We know comparatively little about the oceans, yet they occupy a vast area of the Earth. In total the oceans cover 361,100,000 square kilometres (139,400,000 square miles) and occupy a volume of 1,370 million cubic kilometres (329 million cubic miles). The average depth of the oceans is 3,730 metres ( 12,238 feet).

Water covers more than 70 per cent of the Earth's surface. Most of this water is contained within four interlinked oceans—the Pacific, which occupies an area larger than all of the world's continents combined, the Atlantic, which is about half the size of the Pacific, the Indian Ocean, and the small, icy Arctic Ocean surrounding the North Pole. The waters around Antarctica are sometimes described as the Southern Ocean, but most geographers regard this region as extensions of the three largest oceans. Despite their vast size, little was known about the oceans until comparatively recently. Before World War I, the ocean floors were believed to be featureless plains. They are now known to have features as irregular as those on land.

Ocean Floor Topography

Below sea level, most continents are surrounded by gently sloping continental shelf, which are effectively continuations of the continents. These shelves vary tremendously in width, and may extend as far as 1,500 kilometres (930 miles) out to sea. Many continental shelves are crossed by submarine canyons, some of which are larger than the Grand Canyon. Oceanographers believe these huge depressions were carved out by dense, sediment-loaded water flowing across the seafloor.

The continental shelves end at depths of about 130 metres (430 feet). Beyond this point there is a marked change of gradient, where a steep continental slope plunges down to the ocean floor, or abyss. Where the continental slope meets the ocean floor is the continental rise. Sediments wash down from the continental shelf and slope and collect in the rise, which extends up to 1,000 kilometres (620 miles) across the abyss from the continental slope.

The abyss proper, which reaches average depths of 4,000 to 6,000 metres (13,000 to 20,000 feet), consists of large abyssal plains broken by low hills. Features of the ocean floor include seamounts, and volcanoes such as the Hawaiian chain, which break the surface as islands. Some extinct, flat-topped volcanoes, such as the Pacific Guyots, are covered by coral deposits, including reefs and atolls.

The most prominent features rising from the abyss are mid-oceanic ridge. Formed when magma rises to the surface along separating underwater plate boundaries, these extensive mountain chains are present in all of the oceans. Mid-oceanic ridges cover nearly 23 per cent of the earth's surface, and generally rise about 1,500 metres (5,000 feet) above the ocean floor. Rift valley, bounded by fault zones, may appear along the crests of the ridges where new ocean crust has been formed by the oozing magma. The temperatures of the rocks in this area are higher than normal, demonstrating that the area is volcanically active. Parts of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, for example, which stretches from the Norwegian Sea to the South Atlantic, emerge as volcanic islands in Iceland and the Azores.

Hot springs were discovered in underwater rift valleys as recently as 1977. Minerals in the hot spring water are deposited around their vents, and build up to form chimneys. Because the water that gushes from these chimneys is dark, they have been named "black smokers". The mineral-rich water around the black smokers, which is often heated to 350C (662F) or more, provides a breeding place for strange bacteria and living creatures, such as blind crabs and tripod fish, formerly unknown to science. Their presence has led to speculation that life may first have evolved on earth in such hostile environments as these.

The other main physical features in the oceans are deep trenches, alongside which are chains of volcanoes. Some volcanic chains, such as those in eastern Asia, form islands, while others intrude into adjacent land areas, as in Central and South America.

The trenches and ocean ridges are active zones, where the Earth's crust is unstable. They are associated not only with vulcanicity, but also with intense seismic activity. The study of these features helped in the formulation of the theory of plate tectonics, and the recognition that mid-oceanic ridges are plate margins where new crustal rock is being formed as plates move apart, while the trenches mark where plates are being destroyed in subduction zones. The Marianas Trench, on the floor of the North Pacific Ocean, is the deepest known ocean trench, reaching a maximum depth of 11,033 metres (36,198 feet).

Plate tectonics explains how the oceans were formed. Around 200 million years ago, all the continents were joined together in one supercontinent called Pangaea. During the last 180 million years, Pangaea has broken up and new oceans have formed through ocean-spreading along rift valleys in the mid-oceanic ridges between the continents. The theory is supported by the fact that none of the basaltic rocks which cover the ocean floor are more than 200 million years old. The oceans, therefore, are young features by comparison with the continents, where rocks have been found that date back around 3.8 billion years.

Ocean Water

The oceans contain 97 per cent of the world's water. All of the Earth's natural elements are present in this water, the most common being sodium and chloride, which together form salt. The salinity of ocean water varies between about 3.3 and 3.7 per cent. Areas where the evaporation rate is high and there is little rain generally have a high salinity. Other areas, such as the Baltic Sea, which receive large amounts of fresh water from rivers, are much less saline.

Variations in the salinity and temperature of the water in the oceans create density differences in the water, which in turn cause ocean currents. These currents flow through all of the oceans, redistributing the water, transferring heat, and modifying the climate. However, most of the familiar surface currents, such as the warm Gulf Stream which brings mild weather to northwestern Europe, are caused by prevailing winds. The effect of currents on climate were well demonstrated in 1997-1998, when a phenomenon known as El Niño, caused by currents in the Pacific Ocean, caused freak weather conditions in many parts of North and South America, eastern Asia, and Australia.

Tides and waves influence the movement of the water in the oceans. Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun, which cause the waters in the oceans to rise and fall in a continuous cycle. Winds are normally responsible for the waves. Light winds create calm waters, while choppy waves and rough seas are the result of strong winds. Along the coasts, storm waves bombarding the shore cause erosion, but the most terrifying waves are generated by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. Called tsunamis, these waves, which are 15 metres (50 feet) or more in height, most frequently occur in the Pacific Ocean.

Ocean Life

The oceans are home to an incredible variety of living organisms, ranging from the world's largest animal, the blue whale, to microscopic algae. Around 160,000 ocean species have been named, and scientists believe there may be tens of millions more unclassified. The most important part of the ocean is the euphotic zone, where sunlight can penetrate easily. Beyond this zone, which extends to about 60 metres (200 feet) below the surface, the light becomes too weak to support plant life, and beyond 200 metres (650 feet) it fades away completely.

Scientists divide marine life into four main groups: plankton, neuston, nekton, and benthos. Plankton, mostly visible only through a microscope, are found near the surface. They include tiny plants, called phytoplankton, which use sunlight to make their food, and many of which are single-celled, together with microscopic animals collectively known as zooplankton. Crustaceans, which also include many single-celled creatures, make up about 70 per cent of the zooplankton. The copepod, the most common animal in the ocean, is a zooplankton. Much plankton is actually the young of larger ocean species, such as crabs and starfish. Plankton provide the basis of the food chain in the ocean. Neuston are organisms that live at or within 10 to 20 centimetres (4 to 8 inches) of the surface, and include jellyfishes, Portuguese man-of-war, floating snails, and sargassum weed. Nekton, or free-swimming organisms, live mostly near the surface, although some inhabit the dark ocean depths. Among this group are fish, squids, and marine mammals such as whales. Close to the ocean floor dwell the marine organisms collectively known as benthos, among them crabs, lobsters, and starfish, together with fish such as halibut and sole. Other organisms, such as sea grass, become anchored to the ocean floor. Even the deepest ocean trenches, where water pressures are enormous, contain living creatures. Many are scavengers that feed on dead organisms which have drifted down from the top layers.

Studying the Ocean

Oceanography began in the second half of the 19th century, and is therefore a relatively young science. One of the most significant early explorations in this field was the round-the-world expedition of a British research ship called Challenger. But while information accumulated about seawater and the myriad life forms it contained, measuring ocean depths was restricted. This was because the only means available before World War I involved lead-weighted ropes or wires, and such a time-consuming, laborious technique was suitable only for shallow coastal waters. From the 1920s, the use of echo-sounders enabled oceanographers to begin the huge task of mapping the ocean floor and, from the 1930s and 1940s, manned descents into the oceans took place in submersibles. Research accelerated after World War II, and the accumulation of information about the ocean floor in the 1950s and 1960s, using increasingly sophisticated techniques, led to the formulation of the theory of plate tectonics. Today the study of "inner space", as the oceans have been called, continues with the aid of research ships, submersibles, satellites, and computers.

Overfishing and Pollution

The oceans are an important source of food, minerals, fossil fuels, and energy. Tidal power is already generated, and wave power has potential as an alternative energy supply for the future. However, many formerly rich fishing grounds, such as the Grand Banks off Newfoundland, have been overfished and the cod, for which this fishing ground was once well-known, are now rare. Other misuses of the oceans include oil spills, which are caused by accidents to oil tankers, or the deliberate emptying of oil into the sea when the tankers are cleaned. The dumping of poisonous factory wastes, untreated sewage, or other harmful pollutants, including radioactive wastes, adds to the pollution problem.

Two important tropical oceanic environments, where fish and other organisms breed, have been seriously damaged. These are coastal mangrove swamps, which have been polluted and deforested, and coral reefs. A global survey in 1997 suggested that about 95 per cent of coral reefs have been damaged by overfishing, dynamiting, poisoning, pollution, or ships' anchors. The worst damage occurred in the Indo-Pacific region, where there is great demand for reef fish as a delicacy.

Global warming could have major effects on the circulation of the oceans and, subsequently, on world climates. For example, computer models suggest that global warming could weaken the Gulf Stream and this would mean much colder winters for northwestern Europe. Global warming could also melt ice locked in the global ice packs and release it into the oceans, where it would cause sea levels to rise and low-lying islands, such as the Maldives, to be submerged within a century. The conservation of the oceans and their valuable resources is a matter for urgent coordinated international action.

Plate Tectonics

2009-01-04T20:56:00.000-08:00

According to the theory of plate tectonics, the earth’s crust is broken up into at least a dozen rigid plates that move independently of one another. These slabs rest upon a layer of heated, pliable rock called the asthenosphere, which flows slowly like hot tar. Geologists have not yet determined exactly how these two layers interact, but a popular theory is that the movement of the thick, molten material in the asthenosphere forces the upper plates to shift, sink, or rise. The basic concept behind plate tectonics is simply that heat rises. Hot air rises above cool air, and warm water currents flow above cold water. The same is true of the heated rock below the earth’s surface. The asthenosphere’s molten material, or magma, pushes upwards, while cooler, hardened matter sinks deeper into the mantle.

Sinking rock eventually reaches the extremely hot temperatures of the lower asthenosphere, heats up, and begins to rise again. This continual, roughly circular motion is called convection. At diverging plate boundaries and at hot spots in the otherwise solid lithosphere, molten material wells up to the surface, forming a new crust. Continental Drift
The theory of plate tectonics was not widely accepted until the 1960s and 1970s. Before that time, most scientists believed the earth’s continents and oceans to be stationary. At the beginning of the 20th century, German meteorologist Alfred Wegener suggested that all continents had been part of one huge supercontinent, Pangaea. According to Wegener, about 200 million years ago Pangaea broke into separate plates that slowly drifted away from each other, leading to today’s continental arrangement. One of Wegener’s most convincing pieces of evidence was the almost perfect fit between the eastern coast of South America and the western coast of Africa. To support his theory, he pointed out that rock formations on opposite sides of the Atlantic—in Brazil and West Africa—match in age, type, and structure. Also, the formations often contain fossils of the same terrestrial creatures, indicating that South America and Africa must have previously been connected. In subsequent years, scientific discoveries steadily began to support the fundamental aspects of Wegener’s theory. Geologists demonstrated the existence of the slowly moving asthenosphere, underlying the crust at depths of 50 to 150 kilometres (30 to 80 miles). In addition, scientists in the 1920s used sonar, an echo-sounding device, to determine ocean depths and map the seafloor. They concluded that the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, detected in the 19th century, was part of a worldwide ocean ridge system.

Seafloor Spreading
Additional evidence for plate tectonics came in the 1950s and 1960s. During this period, scientists discovered that all rock fragments maintain a set magnetic pattern based on when the rocks formed. Geophysicists also learned that the earth’s magnetic field had reversed between north and south dozens of times over millions of years. With this knowledge, they examined both sides of ocean ridges and found that the rocks on one side of the ridge produced a mirror-image geomagnetic pattern of the rocks on the other side.

The rocks nearest the ridge were relatively young, but the rocks aged as the distance from the ridge increased. In addition, marine sediment was thicker and older further from the ridge, whereas the ridge itself had virtually no deposits of sediment. These observations, added to those of the heat flow at the ridge, confirmed the creation of new crust at mid-ocean ridges and the mechanism of seafloor spreading.

After molten rock reaches the seafloor as lava, deep ocean water quickly cools and consolidates the material. To make room for this continual addition of new crust, the plates on either side of the ridge must constantly move apart. In the North Atlantic, the rate of movement of each plate is only about 1 to 2 centimetres (0.4 to 0.8 of an inch) per year. In the Pacific, the rate can be more than 10 centimetres (about 4 inches) annually.

Subduction

The Marianas Trench, just east of the Mariana Islands in the western Pacific, is the deepest seafloor depression in the world at 11,033 metres (36,198 feet). The Marianas Trench is one of many deepwater trenches formed by the geologic process of subduction. During subduction, the edges of plates are subducted, or forced under, other plates. Ocean crust is drawn down into the mantle and partially melted.

An important effect of the melting of subducted ocean crust is the production of new magma. When subducted ocean crust melts, the magma that forms may rise from the plane of subduction deep within the mantle, erupting on the earth’s surface. Eruption of magma melted by subduction has created long, arc-shaped chains of volcanic islands, such as Japan, the Philippines, and the Aleutians. Where an oceanic plate is subducted beneath continental crust, the magma produced by subductive melting erupts from volcanoes situated among long, linear mountain chains, such as the Andes in South America. Plate Boundaries
Plate boundaries do not necessarily match the coastlines of continents. A plate can consist of continental crust, oceanic crust, or both. In most cases, continents are part of larger plates that extend for hundreds of miles offshore. Many plate boundaries are far out in the middle of the ocean. There are three types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform. Divergent boundaries exist where plates move away from each other, pushed apart by heated, material moving upwards from the asthenosphere. An additional force involved in divergence may be the subduction of the heavier, older, and thicker crust at the opposite ends of each diverging plate. As the heavy edge sinks, it pulls the rest of the plate with it, away from the divergent boundary. Magma at the divergent boundary hardens, adding new crust to the edges of the separating plates. Scientists often refer to these as constructive boundaries, due to the construction of new material. Mid-ocean ridges are examples of this type of boundary. These ridges frequently resemble submarine mountain ranges, portions of which are high enough to break the ocean’s surface, in places such as Iceland in the North Atlantic. Divergent boundaries also exist within continents. The Great Rift Valley, which extends for more than 4,830 kilometres (3,000 miles) from Syria to Mozambique, is a well-known example. Divergence has caused the earth’s crust to thin and drop along this plate boundary. A boundary where two plates collide is a convergent boundary. When an oceanic plate, such as the Nazca Plate which moves eastwards under the southeastern Pacific Ocean, meets a continental edge such as South America, the denser and heavier oceanic crust is normally subducted and partially melted beneath the continental plate. Ocean trenches at the boundary of the plate and mountain chains on the continental plate often result.

Earthquakes can occur at these plate margins, shifting plates by up to 5 metres (about 15 feet) at once. Such faults exist in Chile, Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, New Zealand, and Sumatra. When two continental plates collide, the crust from both plates thrusts upwards, creating mountain chains. The collision of India with the Asian continent formed the Himalayas. In fact, the mountain range is still growing in height today because India and Asia are still converging.

At a transform boundary, plates move past each other in opposite directions. Little volcanic activity accompanies transform boundaries, but large, shallow earthquakes can occur. The San Andreas Fault in California (USA), is the most famous example of this type of boundary. Mid-ocean ridges are offset by hundreds of small transforms.

The revolutionary theory of plate tectonics forms the basis of modern geologic thought and explains many of today’s landforms and the movement of continents. This theory also provides an explanation for many of the world’s earthquakes and volcanoes. Most earthquakes and volcanic eruptions take place near plate margins.

Unfortunately, many large cities exist along plate margins, such as along the Ring of Fire, a zone of intense volcanic and seismic activity surrounding the Pacific Ocean. Humans repeatedly suffer the effects of these often catastrophic manifestations of tectonic activity.

Earthquakes

2009-01-04T20:55:00.000-08:00

Earthquakes occur when the Earth’s crust moves suddenly along a fault. Rock under great strain ruptures and releases energy in the form of seismic waves. However, most earthquakes are so slight that they are not felt by humans. Some quakes create vibrations resembling those caused by the passing of a heavy truck. The vibrations of major earthquakes can be catastrophically destructive, having the ability to level entire cities in seconds.

History of Earthquake Study
Since ancient times, people living in earthquake-prone areas have been preoccupied with earthquakes. Some of the ancient Greek philosophers attributed them to subterranean winds; others blamed them on fires deep in the Earth. Around AD 130, the Chinese scholar Zhang Heng reasoned that waves must ripple through the Earth from the source of an earthquake. He constructed an elaborate bronze vessel to record the passage of such waves and delicately balanced eight balls in the mouths of eight dragons placed around the circumference of the vessel. A passing seismic wave would cause one or more of the balls to drop.

In the early 20th century, the Russian seismologist Prince Boris Golitzyn invented the modern seismograph. His device, using a magnetic pendulum suspended between the poles of an electromagnet, ushered in the modern era of earthquake research.

Kinds and Locations of Earthquakes
Scientists recognize three general classes of earthquakes: tectonic, volcanic, and artificially produced. The tectonic variety is by far the most devastating, and such quakes pose particular difficulties for scientists trying to develop ways to predict them.

According to the theory of plate tectonics, the ultimate cause of tectonic earthquakes is stresses set up by movements of the dozen or so major and minor plates that make up the Earth’s crust. Most tectonic quakes occur at the boundaries of these plates, in zones where one plate slides past or beneath another.

Earthquakes resulting from subduction account for nearly half of the world's destructive seismic events and three-quarters of the Earth's seismic energy. These are concentrated along the Ring of Fire, a narrow band about 38,600 kilometres (24,000 miles) long, which coincides with the margins of the Pacific Ocean. Crustal rupture in such earthquakes tends to occur far below the Earth's surface, at depths of up to 645 kilometres (400 miles).

Tectonic earthquakes beyond the Ring of Fire occur in a variety of geological settings. Mid-ocean ridges are the sites of numerous such events of moderate intensity that take place at relatively shallow depths. Humans rarely feel these quakes. Such earthquakes account for only about 5 per cent of the Earth's seismic energy, but the instruments of the worldwide network of seismological stations record them daily.

Tectonic earthquakes also occur in a zone stretching from the Mediterranean and Caspian seas to the Himalayas, and ending in the Bay of Bengal. Within this zone, which releases about 15 per cent of the Earth's seismic energy, continental land masses riding on the Eurasian, African, and Indo-Australian plates are forced together to produce high, young mountain chains. The resulting earthquakes, which occur at shallow to intermediate depths, have devastated areas of Portugal, Algeria, Morocco, Italy, Greece, Iran, India, FYRO Macedonia, Turkey, and other countries partly or entirely on the Balkan Peninsula.

One other category of tectonic earthquakes includes the infrequent but large and destructive ones that occur in areas far removed from other forms of tectonic activity. Prime examples of these so-called mid-plate earthquakes are three massive tremors that shook the central United States region around New Madrid, Missouri, in 1811 and 1812. Powerful enough to be felt 1,600 kilometres (1,000 miles) away, these shocks produced movements that rerouted the course of the Mississippi River. Geologists believe that the New Madrid earthquakes are symptomatic of forces tearing apart the Earth’s crust—forces such as those that created Africa’s Great Rift Valley.

Of the two classes of non-tectonic earthquakes, those of volcanic origin are seldom large or destructive. They are of interest chiefly because they herald impending volcanic eruptions, as they did in the weeks preceding the eruption in 1980 of Mount St Helens in the northwest United States. Such earthquakes originate as magma works its way upwards, filling the chambers beneath a volcano. As the flanks and summit of the volcano swell, swarms of small earthquakes signal the rupture of stressed rocks. On the island of Hawaii, seismographs register as many as 1,000 small quakes a day before an eruption occurs.

Humans may contribute to the cause of earthquakes through a variety of activities such as filling new reservoirs, detonating underground atomic explosives, or pumping fluids deep into the ground through wells. For example, in 1962 Denver, Colorado, in the United States began to experience earthquakes for the first time in its history. The tremors coincided with the pumping of waste fluids into deep wells at an arsenal east of the city. After officials discontinued the pumping, the earthquakes persisted for a while and then ceased.

Earthquake Effects
Earthquakes produce various adverse effects to the inhabitants of seismically active regions. They can cause great loss of life by destroying structures such as buildings, bridges, and dams. Earthquakes can also trigger devastating landslides. Massive fires caused by the rupture of gas and electrical lines have damaged or destroyed many cities.

Another destructive effect of an earthquake is the generation of a so-called tidal wave. This type of wave is caused by sub-sea tremors, not tides, so it is more properly called a seismic sea wave or (its Japanese name) tsunami. These towering walls of water have struck populated coastlines, destroying entire towns. Sanriku, Japan, a town with a population of 20,000, suffered such a devastating fate in 1896.

Liquefaction of soils is another seismic hazard. When subjected to the shock waves of an earthquake, soil used in landfill may lose virtually all its bearing strength and become similar to quicksand. Buildings have literally been swallowed up by these materials.

After a major earthquake, there may be a series of further tremors, some of them severe enough to cause additional damage. These tremors are called aftershocks.

Richter Scale
Seismologists have devised several scales of measurement to describe earthquakes quantitatively. One is the Richter scale—named after the US seismologist Charles Francis Richter (1900–1985)—which measures the energy released at the focus of a quake. It is a logarithmic scale that runs from 1 to 9: a magnitude 7 earthquake is 10 times more powerful than a magnitude 6 earthquake, 100 times more powerful than one of magnitude 5, 1,000 times more powerful than one of magnitude 4, and so on. About 800 earthquakes of magnitudes 5 to 6 occur annually worldwide, in comparison with about 50,000 earthquakes of magnitudes 3 to 4, and only about one earthquake of magnitudes 8 to 9.

Theoretically, the Richter scale is an open-ended one, but until 1979 an earthquake of magnitude 8.5 was thought to be the most powerful possible. Since then, however, improvements in seismic measuring techniques have enabled seismologists to refine the scale, and they now consider 9.5 to be the practical limit.

Devastating Earthquakes
Historical records of earthquakes before the mid-18th century are generally lacking or unreliable. However, reasonably trustworthy records do exist for the following ancient earthquakes: one off the coast of Greece in 425 BC that created the island of Évvoia, one that destroyed the city of Ephesus in Asia Minor in AD 17, one that levelled much of Pompeii in 63, and those that partially destroyed Rome in 476 and Constantinople (now Istanbul) in 557 and again in 936. Severe earthquakes struck England in 1318, Naples in 1456, and Lisbon in 1531.

The 1556 earthquake in Shaanxi Province of China, which killed about 800,000 people, was one of the greatest natural disasters in history. In 1693, an earthquake in Sicily resulted in a loss of approximately 60,000 lives. In the early 18th century the Japanese city of Edo (the site of modern Tokyo) was destroyed, with the loss of some 200,000 lives. In 1755 the city of Lisbon was devastated by an earthquake and about 60,000 people died, a disaster which the French writer Voltaire wrote about in his novel Candide. An earthquake shook Quito, now the capital of Ecuador, in 1797, and more than 40,000 people died.

In North America, the series of earthquakes that struck southeastern Missouri in 1811 and 1812 was probably the most powerful experienced in the United States in modern history. The most famous US earthquake is the one that shook the area of San Francisco in 1906, causing extensive damage and resulting in the loss of 700 lives.

Among the most recent earthquakes was the one on 17 January 1995 that severely damaged Kobe, Japan, killing more than 4,000 people and leaving over 275,000 people homeless. The earthquake measured 7.2 on the Richter scale and lasted 20 seconds. On 28 May 1995 an earthquake measuring 7.5 on the Richter scale struck Neftegorsk, Russia, an oil-producing town on Sakhalin Island in the far eastern part of the country. The earthquake caused great destruction, killing more than 2,000 people and demolishing blocks of flats. In China’s Yunnan Province, near Lijiang, a tremor of magnitude 7.0 struck on 3 February 1996, killing more than 300 people, seriously injuring another 3,800, and damaging or destroying an estimated 830,000 homes.

Preparing for Earthquakes
Countries in earthquake-prone areas, such as Japan, have placed great emphasis on researching and implementing state-of-the-art building construction that will be able to withstand earthquakes. Communities have established and rehearsed detailed emergency procedures. Yet even Tokyo, despite being among the best-prepared nations to deal with earthquakes in the world, is vulnerable to serious damage and heavy loss of life. Tokyo’s problems include: soft soil in some locales that may easily liquefy; a large number of old, buildings of weak construction; narrow streets that would be rendered impassable after earthquake damage; and highly flammable refineries in the industrial areas.

Earthquake Prediction
Attempts to predict when and where earthquakes will occur have met with some success in recent years. China, Japan, Russia, and the United States are the countries most actively supporting such research. In 1975 the Chinese predicted an earthquake of magnitude 7.3 at Haicheng, evacuating 90,000 residents only two days before it destroyed or damaged 90 per cent of the city’s buildings. One of the clues that led to this prediction was a chain of low-magnitude tremors, called foreshocks, that had begun about five years earlier in the area.

Other potential clues being studied are the tilting or bulging of the land surface and changes in the Earth’s magnetic field, in the water-levels of wells, and even in the behaviour of animals. A new method currently being studied involves measuring the buildup of stress in the Earth’s crust. Most predictions are only rough estimates, but as advancements are made in seismology and plate tectonics, the accuracy of predictions will improve, leading to earlier warnings and fewer deaths.

Volcanoes

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The build-up of molten rock in a volcano before it erupts is like the gases in a shaken bottle of champagne. If the amount of gas in a volcano’s magma is high, the inevitable release leads to massive explosions.

The amount of gas inside magma—molten rock—is one of the most important indicators determining how violent an eruption will be. The viscosity, or thickness, of magma is another important factor. Under ground, gases remain suspended under pressure in the magma, but when magma rises to the lower pressures of the surface, the gases expand. Volcanoes with less gaseous and more fluid magma usually have less violent eruptions because the small amount of gas easily escapes from the lava into the air.

Thick, sticky magma, on the other hand, slows down the escape of gases and may also block a volcano’s main vent. When the gases are finally released, they burst out of the lava in furious and turbulent blasts. These explosive eruptions are characterized by large clouds of flying rock particles, rather than lava flows.

Volcanic Products

Volcanoes emit a variety of substances, with varying degrees of force. These substances are lava, pyroclastic material, ash, and gases. Lava is magma that reaches the surface. This liquefied rock is many times hotter than boiling water and glows bright yellow, orange, and red. Lava may erupt in explosive bursts, like giant fountains, or flow gently down the slopes of a mountain. Lava can leave a volcano from the top vent or emerge from vents along the sides. Except for the molten rock that lands back inside the main crater to continue bubbling, all lava eventually cools and solidifies. Some lava cools quickly, on or near the volcano, but more fluid lava may travel for miles before slowly congealing into rock. Over time, solidified lava from different eruptions steadily increases the size and height of the volcano.

All fragments thrown into the air by a volcanic eruption are called pyroclastics. During a more violent eruption, the force of the blast sends superhot gas and millions of pieces of lava into the air. These particles are classified as bombs, cinders, or ash, depending on their size and shape. Small pieces of lava, which solidify almost immediately, form slivers of volcanic glass. Together with rocks blown from the sides of a volcano, the entire collection of ejected material becomes a hot, fast-moving cloud of rock and ash. These flows can travel at great speed down the flanks of a volcano and into surrounding areas, causing extensive destruction. In 1902 the eruption of Mount Pelée, on the island of Martinique, created this type of pyroclastic blast and destroyed the town of Saint-Pierre, killing about 30,000 people. Like lava, pyroclastic material raining down on a volcano eventually compacts into solid layers that build up the volcano’s bulk. Some eruptions actually reduce the height of a volcano, because they are so powerful that they literally blow the top of the volcano off. In 1883 the cataclysmic explosion of Krakatau in Indonesia destroyed most of the island, which had been formed by the volcano. Volcanoes often spew great quantities of ash many kilometres into the air. This fine ash can drift for thousands of kilometres, falling on distant lands, yet the smallest particles of dust may remain suspended in the atmosphere for months. The uprush of gas and vapours from the Krakatau eruption reportedly carried fine ash to a height of 27 kilometres (17 miles). In addition to creating colourful sunsets for many months afterwards, the vapour and ash clouds can have long-lasting effects on the atmosphere and climate. Steam and other gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and sulphur dioxide continuously escape from the surface of lava. Volcanic areas can emit harmful gases in immense quantities. In 1986 a volcanic lake in northern Cameroon released toxic gases that killed more than 1,700 people. The danger to life posed by active volcanoes is not limited to the eruption of molten rock or showers of ash and cinders. Disastrous mudflows are an equally serious hazard. One triggered by a small eruption that melted ice and snow on Ruiz Peak volcano in Colombia claimed more than 25,000 lives in 1985, one of the worst volcanic disasters in the 20th century. Some mudflows may occur long after an eruption is over, when heavy rains saturate loose volcanic debris. In addition, eruptions near glaciers can melt vast quantities of ice, resulting in damaging floods. Iceland occasionally suffers these massive floods, known there as Jökulhlaup.

Volcanic Landforms

The shapes of volcanoes vary according to the types of particles thrown from the volcano during eruptions. The beautifully symmetrical cones of Mount Fuji in Japan and Mayon in the Philippines are examples of strato-volcanoes, or composite volcanoes. This type of volcano emits a combination of lava and pyroclastic material. The mixture allows the successive layers to solidify and support additional mass. Strato-volcanoes are the highest and steepest volcanoes in the world.

Volcanoes that consist predominantly of pyroclastic materials are called cinder cones. These mountains, such as Capulin Mountain in New Mexico (USA), are easily eroded and usually do not reach great heights. Shield volcanoes, on the other hand, are predominantly lava-based landforms that have gradual slopes and wide bases, because they release fluid lava slowly. These volcanoes can create huge landforms. Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea on the island of Hawaii (The Big Island) are classic examples: Mauna Kea has a base on the ocean floor more than 200 kilometres (120 miles) wide. Under certain circumstances, instead of issuing from a central vent, lava pours out along cracks, or fissures, that may extend for several kilometres across the land surface. Flows of this sort have created thick sheets of basalt covering thousands of square kilometres. The Deccan Plateau in India, which covers more than 500,000 square kilometres (200,000 square miles), was formed in this way. The Columbia Plateau in the northwest United States is another example. In modern times, fissure eruptions on a smaller scale have been observed in Iceland and Hawaii. Some enormous, craterous basins called calderas, at the top of long-dormant or extinct volcanoes, form when a massive explosion forces the upper part of a volcano to collapse. Some of these calderas eventually fill with water, forming deep lakes, such as the picturesque Crater Lake in the northwest US.

States of Volcanic Activity

Volcanoes can be active, dormant, or extinct. Active volcanoes have erupted in a relatively recent period. There are more than 500 active volcanoes on continents or islands; thousands more exist under the oceans. Many active volcanoes are in the Ring of Fire, a zone of seismic and volcanic activity that encircles the Pacific Ocean. Izalco Volcano, in El Salvador, has been erupting since 1770. Other active volcanoes include Stromboli in the Aeolian Islands near Sicily, and Cotopaxi in the Andes of Ecuador.

Dormant volcanoes are those that have not erupted for many years, but have the potential to erupt again. The eruption that follows prolonged dormancy is usually violent, as was the explosion in 1980 of Mount Saint Helens in the northwest US, after 123 years of inactivity. The massive eruption in 1991 of Mount Pinatubo, in the Philippines, came after six centuries of dormancy. Extinct volcanoes have not erupted in thousands of years and show no signs of doing so in the future. Mount Kenya, the second highest mountain in Africa, is an extinct volcano. Edinburgh Castle, in Scotland, sits on top of an extinct volcano.

Creation of Volcanoes Most active volcanoes ultimately derive their energy from processes associated with the theory of plate tectonics. Volcanoes tend to coincide with major plate boundaries, though some, like the Hawaiian Islands, formed over hot spots in the earth's surface far from plate boundaries.

At subduction zones, where one plate moves beneath the other, the subducted plate is dragged downwards into the earth's mantle until it reaches a depth where high temperatures partially melt the rock. The resulting magma then rises along vertical fissures and reaches the surface through a volcanic vent. Volcanoes along the Andes in South America and the Cascade Range in North America are examples of volcanoes that formed on continental crust overlying subduction zones. When fissures open up on the seafloor, volcanic islands form as a result, such as Japan and the Philippines. At divergent plate boundaries, where two plates move away from each other, magma wells up along the linear boundary. Iceland is a volcanic land mass on top the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a divergent plate boundary. New additions along this ridge, such as the island of Surtsey, still continue to be created. A third type, known as transform boundaries, exists when two plates slide alongside each other. The interaction of plates at a transform boundary, such as the San Andreas Fault in the western United States, does not normally lead to volcanic activity.

Hot Spots Hundreds of hot spots exist around the world. These are areas in the lithosphere that are underlain by unusually hot magma. This heat causes partial melting of the lithosphere, eventually leading to volcanic activity. The Hawaiian Islands are a classic example of a volcanic grouping formed over one hot spot.

Over thousands of years, as the Pacific Plate inched its way in a northwest direction, the stationary hot spot underneath the plate successively created volcanoes above it. Several of these volcanoes reached the ocean’s surface, forming the Hawaiian Islands. As the plate continued to move, volcanoes, embedded in the plate, travelled away from the source of magma and eventually became extinct. This hot spot still continues to create new volcanoes. Thus, the islands are progressively younger from the northwest to the southeast. Several volcanoes in the chain are still quite active, and new underwater volcanoes are forming to the southeast of Hawaii as the Pacific Plate continues to move over the hot spot. Humans and Volcanoes
Volcanoes are an important aspect of many cultures. One of the most famous and beautiful volcanoes in the world is Mount Fuji in Japan, which last erupted in 1708. According to legend, Mount Fuji arose from the plain during a single night in 286 BC. Geologically, the mountain is much older than the legend asserts. Certain religious sects regard the mountain as a sacred place. Thousands of pilgrims from all parts of the country visit Mount Fuji annually, and numerous shrines and temples are on its slopes. Mount Fuji is also revered in Japanese literature and art. Volcanoes, when not causing mass destruction, can actually benefit humans. For example, they may provide extremely fertile land for crops and forests. Vineyards and orchards now cover the lower slopes of Mount Vesuvius, which destroyed the town of Pompeii in AD 79 in a pyroclastic explosion. Higher up, oaks and chestnut trees grow. Volcanoes, when inactive, can also provide areas for sightseeing, hiking, and camping, and many have become parks. Tourism often results from continuous or recent volcanic eruptions. Many people visit Hawaii Volcanoes National Park to view the spectacular lava flows from a safe distance. Scientific Inquiry
Geologists and volcanologists, who specifically study volcanoes, attempt to increase our knowledge of volcanoes and try to predict when eruptions will occur. Volcanic earthquakes and changes in the shape of volcanoes are two signals of impending eruptions. Like earthquakes, however, volcanoes can be unpredictable, and those who live in their vicinity are constantly at risk.

Nutrients in water benefits agriculture

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Agriculture producers may find they don't have to bottle their water from the Seymour Aquifer in the Rolling Plains to make it more valuable, according to Texas AgriLife Research scientists.

Drs. John Sij, Cristine Morgan and Paul DeLaune have studied nitrate levels in irrigation water from the Seymour Aquifer for the past three years, and have found nitrates can be as high as 40 parts per million. Though unacceptable for drinking, the water would benefit agricultural producers who use it for irrigation.

This high concentration of nitrates is a concern because it exceeds the federal safe drinking water standards as the aquifer is used as a municipal water source for the communities of Vernon, Burkburnett and Electra, as well as some rural families, Sij said.

"When you get more than 10 parts per million, it exceeds the federal limit," he said. "Our water at Chillicothe is around 20 parts per million, so we don't give it to the babies, but adults can drink it."

Nitrate levels range from 3 parts per million to 40 parts per million in the aquifer, so the situation is being addressed by the Texas State Soil and Water Conservation Board, with grant funding from the Environmental Protection Agency.

Also working on the project are the Haskell, Wichita-Brazos and California Creek Soil and Water Conservation districts, the U.S. Department of Agriculture-Natural Resources Conservation Service, Texas AgriLife Extension Service, Texas A&M AgriLife's Texas Water Resources Institute, Rolling Plains Groundwater Conservation District and AgriLife Research.

"We don't know what percentage of the nitrate is geologic in nature or what percentage is due to farming operations," Sij said. "But if we take it into consideration in our fertility programs, we can mine the nitrogen and use it as a resource."

Mining the water for nitrates, instead of putting in additional and sometimes unnecessary nitrogen, may also have the potential to improve water quality from the Seymour Aquifer, he said.

Ninety percent of the water from the Seymour in Knox, Haskell, Baylor, Wichita, Wilbarger and Fisher counties is used for irrigation, he said. For those agricultural producers, it could be a source of nutrients that could reduce fertiliser costs.

"We encourage the installation of subsurface drip irrigation systems where possible," Sij said. This is thought to improve the water quality by reducing the nitrates, and to allow producers to realise the benefits of those nutrients supplied in the irrigation water.

Assuming a 20 parts per million nitrate concentration and just 12 inches of applied irrigation water per acre over the growing season, approximately 55 pounds of useable nitrogen per acre can be applied to a cotton crop, DeLaune said.

This amount of nitrogen exceeds the 50-pound requirement for a bale of cotton, Sij said. With drip irrigation, it can be put into the soil around the roots and not lost through denitrification as might occur through surface application of nitrogen.

Drip irrigation is a very efficient delivery system for nutrients, he said.

"At nearly a $1 per pound for fertiliser nitrogen these days, 55 'free' pounds of nitrogen can add up to significant cost savings, about $55 per acre or more, for producers who irrigate their crops with high nitrate ground water," DeLaune said.

The 150 pounds of nitrogen needed to grow three-bale cotton can be reduced if producers learn to take into account what is already in the soil and, now, what is in the water, he said.

"They need to know both those numbers before planning their fertiliser program," Sij said.

Of course, other nutrients like potassium and phosphorous must be adequate to take advantage of nitrates in the irrigation water as well as any applied fertiliser nitrogen, he said.

Producers should have their irrigation water analysed for nitrate annually and make allowance for this free nitrogen source when determining crop fertiliser needs, Sij said.

Drought Management and Agriculture in British Columbia

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The past few years have seen some of the driest and hottest years on record in British Columiba, a scenario that is likely going to repeat itself as the 21st century progresses.

We often think about how drought may impact community water supplies, recreation and other activities.

What about the security of our food supply ?

Drought can have a major impact on agricultural production. Impacts are not only felt for the current drought year, but can have lingering impacts that last several years.

Producers that are forced to sell their herds because of a shortage of feed supply cannot just replenish the herd numbers quickly in subsequent years. Similarly, if perennial plants die due to a lack of water, it takes years to establish anew plant that will achieve the same level of production.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Lands has developed a series of factsheets that provide producers with useful information on how to manage droughts and reduce the effects of droughts.

View these factsheets

The province has also developed a drought response plan. The components of the plan and other relevant information are explained in the following powerpoint presentation link:

Dealing with Drought

Environmental water management

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The National Water Initiative recognises the integrated management of environmental water as a key area of importance. The National Water Initiative requires effective and efficient management and institutional arrangements to be in place to ensure the achievement of environmental outcomes. This includes:

the establishment of accountable and well resourced environmental water managers who have the ability to participate in water markets
the trading of water and utilisation of market based mechanisms for the recovery of water for environmental outcomes
an agreement to give statutory recognition to, and at least the same level of security as other water access entitlements, to environmental water

While the current arrangements under the National Water Initiative have made substantial contributions to water management, current progress suggests that the objectives of the National Water Initiative are unlikely to be met without a significant intervention.

National Water Initiative

If over-allocation and over-use in the Murray-Darling Basin are not addressed now river health, the environment and other public amenity values will be severely impacted.

Seafloor Spreading

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This diagram shows the Americas being separated from the Europe and Africa as the seafloor spreads. Continents are grey in color. Youngest seafloor is red and as seafloor gets older it becomes yellow, green and then blue.
Click on image for full size version (40K GIF)
Image from: NOAA/NESDIS/National Geophysical Data Center, Boulder, CO

This diagram provides evidence of seafloor spreading by showing the ages of ocean floor in the Atlantic and eastern Pacific Oceans. The red colors are the youngest parts of the seafloor, where fresh new crust is formed as lava seeps up from the deep interior of the Earth at spreading ridges. As new crust forms at these spreading ridges, older crust, colored green in the diagram, moves away from the ridge. The blue portions are the oldest regions of the seafloor. They are either next to continents, which also contain very old rocks, or are near areas on Earth where subduction is taking place.

The diagram shows the American continents being separated from the Eurasian and African continents. This is a very fast model of what has happened to the Earth’s plates over the past 250 million years.

Subduction

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This is a drawing of a portion of the Earth's crust undergoing subduction.
Click on image for full size version (40K GIF)
Image copyright 1997 by the American Geophysical Union. Further electronic distribution is not allowed.

When two sections of the Earth's crust collide, one slab of crust can be forced back down into the deeper regions of the Earth, as shown in this diagram. This process is called subduction. The slab that is forced back into the Earth usually undergoes melting when the edges get to a depth which is hot enough. (A temperature hot enough to melt lithosphere is about a thousand degrees!). This process is called "subduction".

Melted crust rises back towards the surface where it helps make volcanoes and islands. Thus the formation of some volcanoes, mountains, and islands is connected to the process of subduction and continental drift.

The melted lithosphere also releases gases of the atmosphere which had become trapped in the ground. Thus subduction of the lithosphere contributes to recycling of the atmosphere!

How Do Plates Move?

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This image is a cross section through the Earth showing the convection cells of the mantle. Ridge push happens at spreading centers where plates are moving apart. Slab pull happens at subduction zones where one plate is pulled down into the mantle.
Click on image for full size (11K GIF)
Windows Original after Northcott

Plates at our planet’s surface move because of the intense heat in the Earth’s core that causes molten rock in the mantle layer to move. It moves in a pattern called a convection cell that forms when warm material rises, cools, and eventually sink down. As the cooled material sinks down, it is warmed and rises again.

Scientists once thought that Earth’s plates just surfed on top of the mantle’s giant convection cells, but now scientists believe that plates help themselves move instead of just surfing along. Just like convection cells, plates have warmer, thinner parts that are more likely to rise, and colder, denser parts that are more likely to sink.

New parts of a plate rise because they are warm and the plate is thin. As hot magma rises to the surface at spreading ridges and forms new crust, the new crust pushes the rest of a plate out of its way. This is called ridge push.

Old parts of a plate are likely to sink down into the mantle at subduction zones because they are colder and thicker than the warm mantle material underneath them. This is called slab pull.

Clues to Plate Movements

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This is a drawing of the Earth's lithosphere.
Click on image for full size version (40K GIF)

Many kinds of surface features are clues that our lithosphere is sliding.

Two types of features can form when plates move apart. At mid ocean ridges, the bottom of the sea splits apart and new crust is formed from molten rock, or magma, rising from the mantle. Continental rifts form when a continent begins to split apart. If a continental rift continues to split a continent apart it can eventually form an ocean basin.

When two plates move towards each other, several features can form. Often, one of the plates is forced to go down into the hot asthenosphere at a subduction zone. Volcanoes may form when a subducted plate melts and the molten rock comes to the surface. If neither plate is subducted, the two crash into each other forming huge mountains.

If these features are found on a planet's surface, they provide evidence that the planet's surface is in motion. The sliding lithosphere makes Earth special because there are only a few other planets that have a surface in motion.

What causes a Planet's surface to change its appearance?

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This is an image of the Martian dunefields.
Click on image for full size version (40K GIF)
Image from: NASA

Over the course of time there are many things which can cause the surface of a planet to change its appearance.

winds, as shown in the example from the Martian surface
- Monument Valley on Earth is an example
weather & water, which cause erosion
volcanism, which pours out a new surface
- The Moon is an example.
continental drift
slow forces of deformation like those which cause mountains to form.
- The crust of Ganymede is an example.
slumping of craters, mountains and volcanoes.
- The surface of Callisto is an example.

In their earliest histories, every planet & moon was bombarded with the remains of the material which formed them. If a planet's surface does not show many craters, it means that the surface is new, and the planet has been resurfaced, perhaps by one of the processes above. If the planet's surface still shows the many craters left over from it's formation, then that surface is very old, and has not been changed by any activity.

Plate Tectonics

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Earth's tectonic plates. Plate boundaries are shown in red. Learn more about the geologic features related to Earth's tectonic plates at This Dynamic Planet
Modified from USGS

The main force that shapes our planet’s surface over long amounts of time is the movement of Earth's outer layer by the process of plate tectonics.

This picture shows how the rigid outer layer of the Earth, called the lithosphere, is made of plates which fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. These plates are made of rock, but the rock is, in general, lightweight compared with the denser, fluid layer underneath. This allows the plates to "float" on top of the denser material.

Movements deep within the Earth, which carry heat from the hot interior to the cooler surface, cause the plates to move very slowly on the surface, about 2 inches per year. There are several different hypotheses to explain exactly how these motions allow plates to move.

Interesting things happen at the edges of plates. Subduction zones form when plates crash into each other, spreading ridges form when plates pull away from each other, and large faults form when plates slide past each other.

What Is an Earthquake?

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This diagram shows an earthquake along a fault. The focus of the earthquake is where the energy is released underground. The epicenter is the spot on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
USGS

The expression “on solid ground” is often used to describe something as stable. Usually the solid ground underfoot seems very stable. But sometimes it is not.

"The ground seemed to twist under us like a top while it jerked this way and that, and up and down and every way," wrote a person describing the experience of being in the large 1906 earthquake in San Francisco, CA.

Earthquakes happen as large blocks of the Earth’s crust move suddenly past one another because of the force of plate tectonics. These blocks of the Earth’s crust meet at cracks called faults. Sometimes those pieces do not slide smoothly past one another. There can be friction along the fault – jagged edges that snag the blocks of rock. This makes it difficult for them to move past each other. Sometimes they get stuck together temporarily. When the pieces of rock overcome the snags, energy is released. The release of energy causes shaking at the ground surface.

The location inside the Earth where an earthquake begins is called the focus. The point at the Earth’s surface directly above the focus is called the epicenter. The strongest shaking happens at the epicenter.

Each year, more than a million earthquakes occur worldwide. Most of these are so small that people do not feel the shaking. But some are large enough that people feel them, and a few of those are so large that they cause significant damage.

Earthquakes can cause damage to things like buildings, bridges, and roads. Earthquakes can cause landslides and mudslides, too. If a large earthquake happens under the ocean it can cause a tsunami – a giant ocean wave or series of waves.

Scientists can figure out whether an earthquake is likely to happen in a place by studying plate tectonics, the faults underground, and the history of the area’s earthquakes. However, unlike weather events, earthquakes can not be forecast ahead of time.

Surface Features of the Earth

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This image shows the topography, or shape, of the Earth's surface, on land and below the oceans. Mountain ranges, subduction trenches, tectonic plates, and mid-ocean ridges are all visible in the image.
Click on image for full size version with these features identified.(637K GIF)
Image from: U.S. Geological Survey

This image of the surface of the Earth shows the North and South American continents, as well as the floor of the Pacific Ocean. As can be seen in the image, the ocean floor shows evidence of

mid-ocean spreading ridges
individual volcanic island formation.
subduction

The continental regions show evidence of

volcanoes (a portion of the "Pacific Rim of Fire")
non-volcanic mountain ranges
island arcs
faulting.

(Click on the image to see labeled examples of these features.)

These things provide evidence that, unlike other planets, the surface of the Earth is in motion. Motion of the Earth's surface is called plate tectonics.

Compare this active surface with that of Venus, Mars, or Europa.

The Earth's Crust, Lithosphere and Asthenosphere

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This drawing shows the Earth's lithosphere (crust and upper mantle) on top of the asthenosphere.
Click on image for full size version (40K GIF)

Crust, the upper layer of the Earth, is not always the same. Crust under the oceans is only about 5 km thick while continental crust can be up to 65 km thick. Also, ocean crust is made of denser minerals than continental crust.

The tectonic plates are made up of Earth’s crust and the upper part of the mantle layer underneath. Together the crust and upper mantle are called the lithosphere and they extend about 80 km deep. The lithosphere is broken into giant plates that fit around the globe like puzzle pieces. These puzzle pieces move a little bit each year as they slide on top of a somewhat fluid part of the mantle called the asthenosphere. All this moving rock can cause earthquakes.

The asthenosphere is ductile and can be pushed and deformed like silly putty in response to the warmth of the Earth. These rocks actually flow, moving in response to the stresses placed upon them by the churning motions of the deep interior of the Earth. The flowing asthenosphere carries the lithosphere of the Earth, including the continents, on its back.

Surface and Interior of Earth

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Click on image for full size version (378K GIF)
Image courtesy of NASA

Earth, the largest and densest rocky planet, was formed about 4.5 billion years ago. The Earth's interior is divided into four layers, which is typical of rocky planets. Each layer has different characteristics and is made of different elements and minerals.

There are many different types of features on Earth’s surface due to the complexity of our planet. The surface is unique from the other planets because it is the only one which has liquid water in such large quantities. Water forms some features of Earth's surface such as rivers, oceans, beaches and lakes. Other surface features, such as mountains, earthquakes and volcanoes, are formed when large pieces of the Earth’s outer layer move slowly by plate tectonics.

Structure of the Interior of Earth

Click on image for full size version (64K GIF)

Earth has a diameter of 12,756 km (7,972 mi). The Earth's interior consists of rock and metal. It is made up of four main layers:
1) the inner core: a solid metal core made up of nickel and iron (1200 km diameter)
2) the outer core: a liquid molten core of nickel and iron
3) the mantle: dense and mostly solid silicate rock
4) the crust: thin silicate rock material

The temperature in the core is hotter than the Sun's surface. This intense heat from the inner core causes material in the outer core and mantle to move around.

The movement of material deep within the Earth may cause large plates made of the crust and upper mantle to move slowly over the Earth’s surface. It is also possible that the movements generate the Earth's magnetic field, called the magnetosphere.

Surface of the Earth

Click on image for full size version (383K GIF)
Image from: Rick Kohrs, Space Science and Engineering Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison

Most of the Earth's surface (70%) is covered with water, and the remaining 30% is taken up by the seven continental landmasses. However, underneath the water that fills the oceans, and the dirt and plants that cover the continents, the Earth’s surface layer is made of rock. This outer layer formed a hard, rocky crust as lava at the surface cooled 4.5 billion years ago.

The crust is broken into many large plates that move slowly relative to each other. Mountain ranges form when two plates collide and their edges are forced up. In addition, many other surface features are the result of the moving plates. The plates move about one inch per year, so millions of years ago the continents and the oceans were in different positions. About 250 million years ago, most of the land was connected together, and ov

This image shows the divisions of the Earth's interior. Click on the image to see labels. (Adapted from Beatty, 1990)

er time has separated into seven continents.

What Causes the Greenhouse Effect?

2008-11-28T09:45:00.000-08:00

The “greenhouse effect” often gets a bad rap because of its association with global warming, but the truth is we couldn’t live without it.Life on earth depends on energy from the sun. About 30 percent of the sunlight that beams toward Earth is deflected by the outer atmosphere and scattered back into space. The rest reaches the planet’s surface and is reflected upward again as a type of slow-moving energy called infrared radiation.

As it rises, infrared radiation is absorbed by “greenhouse gases” such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone and methane, which slows its escape from the atmosphere.

Although greenhouse gases make up only about 1 percent of the Earth’s atmosphere, they regulate our climate by trapping heat and holding it in a kind of warm-air blanket that surrounds the planet.

This phenomenon is what scientists call the "greenhouse effect." Without it, scientists estimate that the average temperature on Earth would be colder by approximately 30 degrees Celsius (54 degrees Fahrenheit), far too cold to sustain our current ecosystem.

How Do Humans Contribute to the Greenhouse Effect?
While the greenhouse effect is an essential environmental prerequisite for life on Earth, there really can be too much of a good thing.

The problems begin when human activities distort and accelerate the natural process by creating more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere than are necessary to warm the planet to an ideal temperature.

Burning natural gas, coal and oil —including gasoline for automobile engines—raises the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Some farming practices and land-use changes increase the levels of methane and nitrous oxide.

Many factories produce long-lasting industrial gases that do not occur naturally, yet contribute significantly to the enhanced greenhouse effect and “global warming” that is currently under way.

Deforestation also contributes to global warming. Trees use carbon dioxide and give off oxygen in its place, which helps to create the optimal balance of gases in the atmosphere. As more forests are logged for timber or cut down to make way for farming, however, there are fewer trees to perform this critical function.

Population growth is another factor in global warming, because as more people use fossil fuels for heat, transportation and manufacturing the level of greenhouse gases continues to increase. As more farming occurs to feed millions of new people, more greenhouse gases enter the atmosphere.

Ultimately, more greenhouse gases means more infrared radiation trapped and held, which gradually increases the temperature of the Earth’s surface and the air in the lower atmosphere.

The Average Global Temperature is Increasing Quickly
Today, the increase in the Earth’s temperature is increasing with unprecedented speed. To understand just how quickly global warming is accelerating, consider this:

During the entire 20th century, the average global temperature increased by about 0.6 degrees Celsius (slightly more than 1 degree Fahrenheit).

Using computer climate models, scientists estimate that by the year 2100 the average global temperature will increase by 1.4 degrees to 5.8 degrees Celsius (approximately 2.5 degrees to 10.5 degrees Fahrenheit).

Not All Scientists Agree
While the majority of mainstream scientists agree that global warming is a serious problem that is growing steadily worse, there are some who disagree. John Christy, a professor and director of the Earth System Science Center at the University of Alabama in Huntsville is a respected climatologist who argues that global warming isn’t worth worrying about.

Christy reached that opinion after analyzing millions of measurements from weather satellites in an effort to find a global temperature trend. He found no sign of global warming in the satellite data, and now believes that predictions of global warming by as much as 10 degrees Fahrenheit by the end of the 21st century are incorrect.

What are the effects of global warming and the greenhouse effect? See the read more.

Earthquakes

2008-11-28T09:41:00.001-08:00

Major Topics In Module 5:

Types of Faults
Earthquake Process
Detecting, Locating, and Measuring Earthquakes
Magnitude and Intensity
Primary Effects of Earthquakes
Secondary Effects of Earthquakes
Introduction

E a _rt ^hq u _ak e ^s are probably the most frightening naturally occurring hazard encountered. Why? Earthquakes typically occur with little warning. There is no escape from an earthquake! Earthquakes have devastating effects, resulting in hundreds to thousands of deaths and injuries, and millions to billions of dollars worth of property damage. The earthquake's location, magnitude of the earthquake, surface geology, and population density are major factors contributing to earthquake damage.

Although earthquakes can occur anywhere on earth, most earthquakes (>90%) occur where tectonic plates move against one another. The boundaries along each plate are referred to as margins. Different types of stresses are associated with each type of margin. Convergent-plate margins have compressional stresses (come together Þ Ü , therefore result in crustal shortening); divergent-plate margins have tensional stresses (move apart Ü Þ , resulting in crustal extension); and transform-plate margins have shear stresses (the plates slide past each other ). Each type of margin has a corresponding fault type associated with it.

Types of faults

Earthquakes result from movement along a fault. Faults and earthquakes are cause and effect. The sense of motion on faults describes how the block move relative to each other. Faults may move along preexisting fracture or may form a new one. There are 3 basic types of faults: normal, reverse, and strike-slip. Normal and reverse faulting result in vertical slip, while strike-slip faulting results in horizontal slip. In nature, motion is seldom absolutely along one direction. There can be a combination of vertical and horizontal slip, which would make the movement along the fault oblique.

Normal faults

Normal faults are associated with extension. A good example of normal faulting is the Basin and Range topography of the western United States. The western part of the North American plate has been pulled apart into a series of "blocks". Most Basin and Range structures result from the tilting of these blocks. A major Basin and Range fault zone is the Wasatch Fault zone, which is 220 miles long (360 kilometers) and extends from Utah into Idaho.

A. Watkins diagram

Reverse faults

Reverse faults are associated with compressional forces- 2 plates or fault blocks pushing towards each other. One side ends up on top! Thrust faults are reverse faults that move up a shallower angle than ordinary reverse faults.

Strike-slip faults

Strike-slip faults are associated with shear stresses. One side of the fault "slides" past the other. "Sometimes" it is fairly easy to recognize where movement on a strike-slip fault has occurred. The photo below shows a creek located along the San Andreas Fault. The zigzag effect (offset) of the creek channel is the result of movement along the fault.

Compare the photo of the San Andreas Fault with the strike-slip fault diagram. The San Andreas Fault is a right-lateral strike-slip fault.

Earthquake processes

Rupturing rocks release huge amounts of energy. The sudden release of energy is what is felt in an earthquake. Earthquake energy is in the form of seismic waves. The seismic waves radiate out from a central point, called the focus or hypocenter, like ripples moving outward from a pebble tossed into a lake. The location directly above the hypocenter, on the earth's surface, is called the epicenter.

Seismic waves

Four types of seismic waves are generated when faulting triggers an earthquake. All the seismic waves are generated at the same time, but travel at different speeds and in different ways. Body waves penetrate the earth and travel through it, while surface waves travel along the surface of the ground.

Primary and secondary waves are body waves. Primary waves (P-waves) travel the fastest and can move through solids and liquids. The P-wave energy causes the ground to move in a compressional motion in the same direction that the wave is traveling. Secondary waves (S-waves) are slower and travel only through solids. The S-wave energy causes the ground to move in a shearing motion perpendicular to the direction of wave movement.

Rayleigh and Love waves are the two types of surface waves. Rayleigh wave energy causes a complex heaving or rolling motion, while Love wave energy causes a sideways movement. The combination of Rayleigh and Love waves results in ground heave and swaying buildings. Surface waves cause the most devastating damage to buildings, bridges, and highways.

Detecting, locating, and measuring earthquakes

Several thousand stations monitor earthquakes all over the world. Each station contains an instrument, called a seismograph, used to detect arrival times and record seismic waves. The seismograph consists of a seismometer (the detector) and a recording device. The seismometer electronically amplifies wave motion.

The graph on which seismic waves are recorded is called a seismogram. The amplitude of the recorded seismic wave is the vertical distance between the crest and trough of the waveform, therefore, the larger the earthquake, the greater the amplitude of the earthquake. The key to locating an earthquake's epicenter is the difference in arrival time, called lag time, of P- and S-waves.
Magnitude and intensity

Earthquakes are categorized in two ways- magnitude and intensity. Magnitude indicates the severity of an earthquake using the Richter Scale, a logarithmic, instrumentally determined measurement. Magnitude rates an earthquake as a whole. The severity of an earthquake is a rating based on the amplitude of the seismic waves. Larger amplitude waves equals higher magnitude earthquake equals greater severity. Amplitude is the vertical distance between the trough and crest of a waveform (sound familiar?).

The Mercalli Scale defines intensity. Intensity is rated by how much damage was caused by an earthquake and how it affected people.

Go to the University of Nevada-Reno Richter scale page for an excellent explanation of the Richter Scale and other earthquake quantifying tools.

The UNR Seismological Laboratory Page is full of interesting information for earthquake enthusiasists.
Earthquake damages (secondary effects)

Effects of an earthquake can be classified as primary or secondary. Primary effects are permanent features produced by the earthquake. Examples include fault scarps, surface ruptures, and offsets of natural or human-constructed objects. An example you have already seen is the creek offset produced by movement along the San Andreas Fault. Secondary effects result when ground movement causes other types of damage. Examples include landslides, tsunami, liquefaction and fire. The amount of damage caused by an earthquake varies with magnitude. The greater the magnitude, the greater the damage potential.

Landslides

Seismic vibration is a common triggering mechanism for landslides. In hilly or mountainous regions, landslides can have particularly devastating effects. Damages can range from debris-covered roadways to extensive property damage and numerous casualties.

Tsunami

A tsunami is a sea wave triggered by a violent displacement of the ocean floor, such as vertical displacement of the seafloor along a fault. Underwater earthquakes, submarine volcanic eruptions or landslides can cause tsunami. Tsunami waves have very long wavelengths (crest-to-crest) and can be enormous (as large as 60 miles/100 kilometers). The height of a tsunami in the open ocean is very low (generally less than 1.5 feet/0.5 meters), while the speed of the tsunami is very high. As it approaches a shallow coastline, its speed is reduced, but the height of the tsunami increases drastically, causing devastation on land.

Liquefaction

How much can surface and subsurface material contribute to earthquake damages? Like many other physical phenomena, the answer is, "It depends." Thick sequences of unconsolidated sediments, such as sand, mud, and artificial fill, greatly magnify ground shaking during an earthquake. Ground shaking transmits forces to building that most buildings are not designed and constructed to endure. Ground shaking results in extensive property damage. Bedrock is less likely to be affected by ground shaking than is unconsolidated material. Buildings constructed on bedrock sustain far less damage than those built on unconsolidated material. Other dangers also come from the ground during an earthquake. Buildings constructed on sandy soil prone to water saturation have the greatest potential for complete destruction, because water-saturated sandy soil is subject to a phenomena called liquefaction. During liquefaction, water-saturated soil behaves as a fluid rather than as a solid. It becomes incapable of supporting much weight. (Remember the soil module and the section of soil strength?)

Fires

Earthquakes cause fires. Even moderate ground shaking can break gas and electrical lines, sever fuel lines, and overturn stoves. Water pipes rupture, making it impossible to fight the earthquake-caused fires. The famous San Francisco earthquake in 1906 ruptured the city's main water pipes. Extensive fire damage was the result!

Tsunami Safety Tips

2008-11-12T21:33:00.001-08:00

Tsunamis can wreak havoc on coastal populations and landscapes. The December 26, 2004, tsunami in the Indian Ocean claimed some 150,000 lives and cleared the landscape on millions of acres of oceanfront terrain. Here are some measures you can take to avoid trouble if you're caught in a tsunami.

Safety tips

When in coastal areas, stay alert for tsunami warnings.
Plan an evacuation route that leads to higher ground.
Know the warning signs of a tsunami: rapidly rising or falling coastal waters and rumblings of an offshore earthquake.
Never stay near shore to watch a tsunami come in.
A tsunami is a series of waves. Do not return to an affected coastal area until authorities say it is safe.

Lightning

2008-11-12T21:31:00.000-08:00

Lightning Can Strike Twice

Contrary to the common expression, lightning can and often does strike the same place twice, especially tall buildings or exposed mountaintops. Cloud-to-ground lightning bolts are a common phenomenon—about 100 strike Earth’s surface every single second—yet their power is extraordinary. Each bolt can contain up to one billion volts of electricity.

This enormous electrical discharge is caused by an imbalance between positive and negative charges. During a storm, colliding particles of rain, ice, or snow increase this imbalance and often negatively charge the lower reaches of storm clouds. Objects on the ground, like steeples, trees, and the Earth itself, become positively charged—creating an imbalance that nature seeks to remedy by passing current between the two charges.

A step-like series of negative charges, called a stepped leader, works its way incrementally downward from the bottom of a storm cloud toward the Earth. Each of these segments is about 150 feet (46 meters) long. When the lowermost step comes within 150 feet (46 meters) of a positively charged object it is met by a climbing surge of positive electricity, called a streamer, which can rise up through a building, a tree, or even a person. The process forms a channel through which electricity is transferred as lightning.

More About Lightning

Tornadoes

2008-11-12T21:29:00.000-08:00

Tornadoes are vertical funnels of rapidly spinning air. Their winds may top 250 miles (400 kilometers) an hour and can clear-cut a pathway a mile (1.6 kilometers) wide and 50 miles (80 kilometers) long.

Twisters are born in thunderstorms and are often accompanied by hail. Giant, persistent thunderstorms called supercells spawn the most destructive tornadoes.

These violent storms occur around the world, but the United States is a major hotspot with about a thousand tornadoes every year. "Tornado Alley," a region that includes eastern South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, northern Texas, and eastern Colorado, is home to the most powerful and destructive of these storms. U.S. tornadoes cause 80 deaths and more than 1,500 injuries per year.

Global Warming Fast Facts

2008-11-12T21:25:00.000-08:00

Global warming, or climate change, is a subject that shows no sign of cooling down. Here's the lowdown on why it's happening, what's causing it, and how it might change the planet.

Is It Happening?

Yes. Earth is already showing many signs of worldwide climate change.

• Average temperatures have climbed 1.4 degrees Fahrenheit (0.8 degree Celsius) around the world since 1880, much of this in recent decades, according to NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies.

• The rate of warming is increasing. The 20th century's last two decades were the hottest in 400 years and possibly the warmest for several millennia, according to a number of climate studies. And the United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports that 11 of the past 12 years are among the dozen warmest since 1850.

• The Arctic is feeling the effects the most. Average temperatures in Alaska, western Canada, and eastern Russia have risen at twice the global average, according to the multinational Arctic Climate Impact Assessment report compiled between 2000 and 2004.

• Arctic ice is rapidly disappearing, and the region may have its first completely ice-free summer by 2040 or earlier. Polar bears and indigenous cultures are already suffering from the sea-ice loss.

• Glaciers and mountain snows are rapidly melting—for example, Montana's Glacier National Park now has only 27 glaciers, versus 150 in 1910. In the Northern Hemisphere, thaws also come a week earlier in spring and freezes begin a week later.

• Coral reefs, which are highly sensitive to small changes in water temperature, suffered the worst bleaching—or die-off in response to stress—ever recorded in 1998, with some areas seeing bleach rates of 70 percent. Experts expect these sorts of events to increase in frequency and intensity in the next 50 years as sea temperatures rise.

• An upsurge in the amount of extreme weather events, such as wildfires, heat waves, and strong tropical storms, is also attributed in part to climate change by some experts.

Are Humans Causing It?

continued

Global Warming Pictures-2

2008-11-06T09:12:00.001-08:00

Collections of Images which can show you impact/effect of Global Warming

Evidence of Global warming

Global Warming Pictures

2008-11-06T09:11:00.000-08:00

Collections of Images which can show you impact/effect of Global Warming

Evidence of Global warming

Global Warming Research - Do You Recognize the 3 major goals for global warming research

2008-11-06T09:10:00.001-08:00

Global warming research has been divided into 3 major goals

Global warming research concluded rapid increase in the consumption of fossil fuels, level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been steadily increasing. Many great scientist have projected that if greenhouse gases doesn't stopped from increasing in the atmosphere, than it could effect negatively on and it is very critical suitation now to investigate about this important problem. Concerned orgatnisation must do something on this and should provide reliable assessment of current and future changes in global climate.

As this global warming research have many different goal to achieve but one of the main goal is to provide reliable and quantitative projection of global warming.

Let's divide global warming research into three different goal to make it simple for you:

First gloal(G1) is to reduce the uncertainty while determining the appropriate response of climate changes in real time (which could help the concerned localities to intimate from calamities) concentration of greenhouse gases and aerosols in theatmosphere, elucidating the physical mechanism of global warming.

Second gloal(G2) is to develop model for an atmosphere-ocean-land coupled which have high performance through numerical experiments and comparison of the outputs with the observed analyses.

Third Goal(G3) is to get detailed information about the chemical and physical mechanisms, which are responsible for the large climactic change of the geological past.

It also attempts to evaluate and validate the sensitivity of model climate through paleoclimate simulations. The primary tools of these groups are general circulation models of both the atmosphere and ocean and the coupled atmosphere-ocean-land models.

Global Warming Research Group [First gloal(G1)]

Figure: The distribution of future precipitation change projected with CCSR/NIES/FRCGC climate model. The blue region indicates precipitation increase, while the red indicates decrease.

This group explores the physical mechanism of future changes of weather and climate, which occur in response to the increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. It will thus contribute to the reduction of the uncertainty in projections of these changes. Specifically, the project will investigate how the behavior of tropical and extra-tropical cyclones, monsoon, and the baiu front, which have substantial impacts on the Asian climate, are influenced by the climate change with a high-resolution climate model. The response of cloud distribution and thickness to the climate change, which affects strongly the amplitude of the future warming, will be examined with a climate model and observational data analysis. The possibility of weakening of the Atlantic deep ocean circulation in response to the climate change will also be investigated.

These studies are conducted as joint projects with the Center for Climate System Research of the University of Tokyo (CCSR) and the National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES) and with the Meteorological Research Institute (MRI).

Coupled Model Development Group [Second gloal(G2)]

One of the main goals of FRCGC is the development of a coupled atmosphere-ocean-land model which can reproduce climate variability at various time scales. Cooperation between specialists in each research field related to the climate system is essential to further understanding of the various physical mechanisms involved in climate change, and to ensure that each process is accurately represented in the model. The coupled model development group has been formed within the Global Warming Research Program so that it works as the central core team in the coupled model development. Our group will collaborate closely with researchers in related organizations outside FRCGC, as well as with other members of the Global Warming Research Program and FRCGC, with the aim of developing the best model to date. The coupled model will be open for use by researchers inside and outside FRCGC under a certain guideline of usage.

Paleoclimate Research Group [Third gloal(G3)]

Using a hierarchy of climate models with varying degrees of complexity, this project will explore the physical and chemical processes that control past changes of climate, ice sheet extent and oceanic circulation. It also validates climate models based upon the simulation of the climates of geological past such as the last glacial maximum and the late Cretaceous period.

The emphasis of this project is also on the quantitative assessment of the astronomical theory of glacial/interglacial fluctuation of global climate during the Quaternary. Using coupled or uncoupled ocean-atmosphere-continental ice sheet models of varying degrees of complexity, this project inquires why the changes of EarthÐµs orbit around the Sun had an enormous impact upon the fluctuation of ice volume and global climate. In addition, this project will attempt to project future changes in Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets associated with global warming.

These studies are conducted in close collaboration with the Center for Climate System Research (CCSR) of the University of Tokyo.

15 tried-and-tested methods for Global Warming Solutions

2008-11-06T09:09:00.000-08:00

Comprehensive list of solutions for Global Warming

We are living in modernized world and we have lots resources and technologies to reduce the threat of global warming. Global Warming Solutions are always available that will give boost to International economy by creating various jobs, saving consumers money, and protecting our national security. If we invest in renewable energy and energy efficiency programs, than we can have better day tomorrow. Increasing the efficiency of the cars we drive, we can take essential steps toward reducing our dependence on oil and other fossil fuels that cause global warming for most than ever.

1. Start burying stuff on a massive scale

The whole problem with global warming starts with digging up and burning the carbon from plants and animals, in the form of coal and oil, that has been buried for millions of years. So two German scientists have a solution: Start burying stuff on a massive scale.

2. Use Energy efficient home appliances

Every single Individual can make big differences which will in turn give a impact on global climate change in a positive or negative way. Your family and you don't have to stop using heat-trapping emitting products like appliances, industrial equipment and buildings for reducing global warming level, but making clever choices to select energy-efficient products for your use, Which might cost you more than usual, but often it will pay back you into the form of energy savings within a couple of years. Most of us have bought an Energy Star appliance or two, and have seen firsthand how much money and energy they can save.

3. Plant 3.8 million square miles of forest every year

One of the most important global warming solution is plant 3.8 million square miles of forest every year to counteract current global carbon dioxide emissions.

4. Unplug appliances which is not in use

Unplug seldom-used appliances, like an extra refrigerator, A/C, cooler etc which you doesn't use frequently.

5. Unplug your charger

Unplug your chargers when you're not charging any pda's, cell phones, digital cameras and other gadgets.

6. Switch off T.V. and home theater from power strips

Switch off televisions, home theater equipment, and stereos by using power strips When it is ideal(not in use).

7. Keep your computer on sleep and hibernate mode

Set your computer to "sleep mode" feature, Which enables your computer to use very much less power as compared to usual it takes. Hibernating computers can make you able to save more energy than enabling your computer to sleep mode as it shuts down your computer by saving your work at the same state.

8. Put lights off when not in use

Don't forget to putt off the switch of lights when you leave a room. Practice the same in your offices/workplaces.

9. Use Energy Star compact fluorescents

Don't use any bulbs which require high energy, there is a solution for this use Energy Star compact fluorescents, which have been concluded that it is best for quality and longevity. If you swap the five standard light bulbs you use most for energy-saving compact fluorescents, you can save roughly $60 each year on electricity.

10. Change Air filters on timely basis

By changing air filters and keeping air conditioner coils clean can decrease emission of co2 in Air.

11. Use Renewable power resources(if applicable)

Now it is permissible to use the power to choose their own energy supplier for any consumer. If it is applicable in your selected area or sector, Select a supplier who uses renewable power resources, like solar, wind, low-impact hydroelectric, or geothermal to generate energy(electricity).

12. Keep the tires on your car adequately expanded

You might be driving you car with out taking care of your vehicle Tires. You have to Keep the tires on your car adequately expanded(inflated) and so u can save lots of carbon-di-oxide as well as wealth.

13. Use Hybrid and Fuel Efficient Car

Buy Hybrid Car and Fuel Efficient Car which can increase your fuel efficiencies. Will decrease level of CO2 and the most important thing your wealth.

14. Avoid eating of chemically produced foods

Don't eat chemically produced foods which is produced in the modern agriculture world now. This kind of food pollute the water supply and require energy to produce while productions.

15. Increase the usage of Recyclable products

Use Recycled products and goods such as papers, plastic bags and other related stuffs.

BPA in Plastic - Banned in Canada

2008-11-06T09:08:00.001-08:00

Bisphenol-A, or commonly called BPA, is a chemical that is commonly found in polycarbonate plastics. BPA is a “monomer” that is used in the chemical polymerization of polycarbonate. Polycarbonate is a plastic that is very rigid and commonly used in applications where strength and rigidity are important. BPA is used in many other plastic synthesis applications, such as polyesters, polysulfones, and polyether ketones, as an antioxidant in some plasticizers, and as a polymerization inhibitor in PVC. Applications where polycarbonate, and hence BPA, is used is in baby and water bottles, sports equipment, medical and dental devices, dental composite (white) fillings and sealants, lenses, and household electronics. As you can see, consumers have a large exposure to BPA.

BPA has been used in manufacturing of plastics since the 1930s. Suspected of being hazardous to humans since use began, concerns about the use of bisphenol A in consumer products grabbed headlines in 2008 when several governments issued reports questioning its safety, and some retailers pulled products made from it off their shelves. Just last week, after years of public protest and mounting scientific evidence, the government of Canada made a precedent-setting announcement by banning a known toxic chemical from baby bottles.

BPA has been found to leach out of products such as baby bottles and the lining of some food cans. Most recently, a study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association linked, for the first time, ’normal’ levels of BPA in a large human population in the U.S. with higher risk of heart disease and diabetes.

The Canadians have already begun to remove this dangerous chemical from the consumer market, but what is being done here in the US? Well, as with many dangerous chemicals in the consumer market, the cost to the chemical industry is very large, and therefore the move to safer alternatives will be a long and hard fought battle. Unfortunately, the consumers cannot expect that the chemical industry has their best interest at heart. An example of this was in the banning of arsenic-based wood preservatives in the consumer market. For years it was known that arsenic causes cancer and that pressure-treated leaches arsenic into humans and the environment. What was done? Nothing for a long period. Only when the EPA got involved did action take place to get this dangerous chemical out of the consumer market. It can be expected that the same process will take place with BPA.

What can you do as a consumer? Educate yourself on BPA and using BPA-free plastics. There are plenty of alternatives out there. Visit Safe Mama for a list of BPA-free containers.

Chlorofluorocarbon - A Great Story

2008-11-06T09:07:00.000-08:00

Chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, is a synthetic chemicals that are odourless, non-toxic, non-flammable, and chemically inert. The first CFC was synthesized in 1892, but no use was found for it until the 1920s. Their stability and apparently harmless properties made CFCs popular as propellants in aerosol cans, as refrigerants in refrigerators and air conditioners, as degreasing agents, and in the manufacture of foam packaging. They are now known to be partly responsible for the destruction of the ozone layer. In 1987, an international agreement called the Montreal Protocol was established; it was one of the first global environmental treaties and it banned the use of chemicals responsible for ozone damage, such as CFCs in aerosols and refrigerants. When CFCs are released into the atmosphere, they drift up slowly into the stratosphere, where, under the influence of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, they react with ozone (O₃) to form free chlorine (Cl) atoms and molecular oxygen (O₂), thereby destroying the ozone layer which protects the Earth’s surface from the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays. The chlorine liberated during ozone breakdown can react with still more ozone, making the CFCs particularly dangerous to the environment. CFCs can remain in the atmosphere for more than a hundred years. Replacements for CFCs are being developed, and research into safe methods for destroying existing CFCs is being carried out.

When CFCs were determined to be detrimental to the atmosphere, companies such as Honeywell, who manufactured CFCs, were forced to comply with the Montreal Protocol and develop safer alternatives for refrigeration in the late 80s. The same issue arose with arsenic in treated lumber 4 years, ago. However, the phase out existing lumber will continue to expose consumers to the carcinogen, arsenic.

Please visit www.arsenichometest.com to determine if your treated lumber contains arsenic.

Top 10 steps to Create Global Warming Awareness

2008-11-06T08:53:00.000-08:00

1. Use less produce able Carbon Dioxide bulbs or lightings

Don’t use fluorescent bulbs as it takes high ratio of energy to output large amount of lights. So replace it with less energy consumable light bulbs. Scientist has discovered that if we use CFL bulb than we can lower down nearly 700 pounds of carbon dioxide out of the air over the bulb's lifetime. It use only a quarter of the energy consumed by conventional bulbs.

2. Efficient usage of Home Appliances

In home we are using energy more than required and it resulting wastage of energy. As we get energy by power plants, which burn fossil fuel to power our electric products. Making it burn outputs air pollution and contributes to smog, acid rain and global warming. If we use less energy definitely we will be saving money as well as energy.

The American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy estimates that if each of us increases the energy-efficiency in our major appliances by 10 - 30%, we'll release the demand for electricity by the equivalent of 25 large power plants!

3. Buy power saving Appliances

While you go for shopping for any electric appliances don’t buy appliances which use power above than average use specially appliances such as Refrigerator, Stove, Washer/Dryer, Air Conditioners, Water Heater, Computers and Home Office Equipment. Buy which has highest energy efficiency rating specified by any experts or sources.

By using appliances marked with Energy Star Logo can help us to save 15 percent of energy than the federal requirement.

Energy Star is the symbol for energy efficiency. It's a label created by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Department of Energy to help consumers save money and minimize air pollution.

4. Mineralize the energy needed for heating

USA Scientist concluded that heating and cooling systems in the U.S.A. emit into the atmosphere more than millions of tons of carbon dioxide each year, which increasing the % of Global Warming rates. By decreasing the usage appliances we can save lots of energy which emits heat.

5. Save your fuel while driving

You can’t image that you can manage to save your fuel 30% by simple vehicle maintenance and attention to your style of driving in an appropriate way. You should take care of for saving fuel by: Don’t drive aggressively, Drive steadily at posted speed limits, Avoid idling your vehicle, Make sure your tires are properly inflated, Select the right gear, Service your vehicle regularly and much more.

6. Drive less and Use public transports more

If you try to drive less and walk more than it would be great contribution towards saving energy and creating global warming awareness. You should try travel by taking the bus, riding a bike, or walking. Try consolidating trips to the mall or longer routine drives. Encourage car-pooling.

7. Paint your Home according to Seasons

Paint your home a light color if you live in a warm climate, or a dark color in a cold climate. This can contribute saving up to 5000 pounds of carbon dioxide per year.

8. Recycle every material

Try not to use products and materials which are not recyclable. Recycling saves energy, landfill space and natural resources. Increase usage of recycled materials such as paper & cardboard, plastic, glass, aluminum, steel & copper. Visit your local recycling center and find out what materials they accept for recycling. For your convenience use plastic bags or totes to store materials for recycling.

9. Eat more vegetarian meals than non-vegetarians

Avoid eating non-vegetarian food as it is not good for human health as well as to the planet. Try to this meal to increase your contribution towards Global Warming Awareness: Nutburgers, Irish Colcannon, Tofu Tamale Pie, Tofu Loaf, Grilled Polenta with Portabello Mushrooms, Vegetable Fajitas and many more.

10. Choose clean Energy Options

If you can choose your electricity supplier, pick a company that generates at least half its power from wind, solar energy and other renewable sources.

2 greenhouse gases on the rise worry scientists

2008-11-06T08:46:00.000-08:00

Carbon dioxide isn't the only greenhouse gas that worries climate scientists. Airborne levels of two other potent gases — one from ancient plants, the other from flat-panel screen technology — are on the rise, too. And that's got scientists concerned about accelerated global warming.

The gases are methane and nitrogen trifluoride. Both pale in comparison to the global warming effects of carbon dioxide, produced by the burning of coal, oil and other fossil fuels. In the past couple of years, however, these other two gases have been on the rise, according to two new studies. The increase is not accounted for in predictions for future global warming and comes as a nasty surprise to climate watchers.

Methane is by far the bigger worry. It is considered the No. 2 greenhouse gas based on the amount of warming it causes and the amount in the atmosphere. The total effect of methane on global warming is about one-third that of man-made carbon dioxide.

Methane comes from landfills, natural gas, coal mining, animal waste, and decaying plants. But it's the decaying plants that worry scientists most. That's because thousands of years ago billions of tons of methane were created by decaying Arctic plants. It lies frozen in permafrost wetlands and trapped in the ocean floor. As the Arctic warms, the concern is this methane will be freed and worsen warming. Scientists have been trying to figure out how they would know if this process is starting.

It's still early and the data are far from conclusive, but scientists say they are concerned that what they are seeing could be the start of the release of the Arctic methane.

After almost eight years of stability, atmospheric methane levels — measured every 40 minutes by monitors near remote coastal cliffs — suddenly started rising in 2006. The amount of methane in the air has jumped by nearly 28 million tons from June 2006 to October 2007. There is now more than 5.6 billion tons of methane in the air.

"If it's sustained, it's bad news," said MIT atmospheric scientist Ron Prinn, lead author of the methane study, which will be published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters Oct. 31. "This is a heads up. We're seeing smoke. It remains to be seen whether this is the fire we're really worried about.

"Whenever methane increases, you are accelerating climate change," he said.

By contrast, nitrogen trifluoride has been considered such a small problem that it's generally been ignored. The gas is used as a cleaning agent during the manufacture of liquid crystal display television and computer monitors and for thin-film solar panels.

Earlier efforts to determine how much nitrogen trifluoride is in the air dramatically underestimated the amounts, said Ray Weiss, a geochemistry professor with Scripps Institution of Oceanography and lead author on a nitrogen trifluoride paper. It is set to be published in Geophysical Letters in November.

Nitrogen trifluoride levels in the air — measured in parts per trillion — have quadrupled in the last decade and increased 30-fold since 1978, according to Weiss, who is also a co-author of the methane paper.

It contributes only 0.04 percent of the total global warming effect that man-made carbon dioxide does from the burning of fossil fuels.

But nitrogen trifluoride is one of the more potent gases, thousands of times stronger at trapping heat than carbon dioxide. Methane is more than 20 times more potent than carbon dioxide on a per molecule basis. Carbon dioxide remains the most important gas because of its huge levels and rapid growth.

Still, methane and the potential of future increases is a worry, Weiss and others say.

Its recent increase coincides with anecdotal evidence of more methane being released in the shallow parts of the Arctic Ocean. A scientific survey in late summer found methane levels in the east Siberian Sea up to 10,000 times higher than normal, said Orjan Gustafsson, an environmental scientist at Stockholm University who has just returned from the six-week survey.

Prinn's data are consistent with the early results of "whole fields of methane bubbles" that Gustafsson said he found last month.

The highest methane level increases were seen in monitoring stations in Alert, Canada, which with recent anecdotal evidence points to plants in permafrost thawing and decaying.

Stanford University environmental scientist Stephen Schneider cautioned that the recent increase is new and that "it is pretty hard to be very confident of any trend or big story yet on methane."

Methane levels have kept scientists guessing for the past decade. They were on the rise until about 1997, then soared in 1998 and then leveled off until jumping again in 2006.

Wind Energy – A Viable Source

2008-10-12T09:26:00.000-07:00

Wind power is one of the most efficient alternative energy sources to combine with solar, especially out in the middle of a total self-sustainability project. Because when there is sun; there isn’t always wind, but when there is wind, there isn’t always sun, so the two systems (solar/wind) seem to be compliment with each other. Wind energy is now attractive for many reasons – it is renewable, clean and scalable.

A bright future for wind energy

The economics of wind energy are already strong, despite the relative youth of the industry. The downward trend in costs is predicted to continue. The strongest influence will be exerted by the downward trend in wind turbine prices. As the world market in wind turbines continues to boom, wind turbine prices will continue to fall.

The global wind energy market is expanding rapidly, creating opportunities for employment through the export of wind energy goods and services.

For additional information please refer to DoE’s excellent resource on Wind Energy: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/

Solar Energy

2008-10-12T09:25:00.000-07:00

Sun is the source of almost all forms of energy including fossil, hydro-electric, wind and solar energy. Although we are currently dependant on fossil fuels, sunlight itself is a tremendous source of energy which is untapped. There is enough potential energy in just one hour of sunlight to power the electrical needs of the entire world for a full year. Now imagine if we could harness this inexhaustible source of energy. Solar energy is also a clean source with no emissions. One solar water heater can reduce global warming gas emissions equivalent of one car.

With the recent developments in technology, solar energy systems are scalable for large and small uses, require no maintenance. Most importantly, with government tax incentives and rebates, solar energy is financially viable.

Energy is a necessity and clean renewable energy is an obligation to our earth and our future. Solar energy is currently available, cost effective and clean. Hence it is time to adopt solar energy systems.

Biomass

2008-10-12T08:54:00.001-07:00

What is it and how can it be used?

Biomass is the organic matter produced by plants. Also it refers to other organic wastes like animal waste, food-processing by-products etc. Everything that is biodegradable is biomass. The solar energy trapped by these plants can be converted to electricity or fuel.

Renewed Interest in Biomass

Three main factors are responsible for the renewed interest in biomass - economics, environmental concerns and national security.

First, economics is the strongest driver in renewed interest in biomass fuels and chemicals. New advances in biotechnology and bioprocesses, such as those demonstrated at BECON, can dramatically reduce the costs of producing biochemicals.

Second, biomass fuels generally have less impact on the environment than fossil fuels, such as coal and oil.

Producing fuels and chemicals from biomass is not a new concept. Cellulose, ethanol, methanol, vegetable oils and a host of other biomass-based chemicals have been in use since the 1800's to make products like paint, glue, adhesives, synthetic cloth and solvents. It was not until the 1930's and 40's that petrochemicals began to dominate the market and displace chemicals and products derived from biomass.

BIO - GAS

2008-10-12T08:54:00.000-07:00

The National Project on Bio - Gas Development (NPBD) which caters to the setting up of family type Bio - Gas plants is a central sector scheme and is point number 19(d) of the 20 Point Programme. It has the following objectives :

To provide fuel for cooking purposes and organic manure to rural households.
To mitigate the drudgery of rural women, reduce pressure on forests and accentuate social benefits.
To improve sanitation in villages by linking sanitary toilets with Bio-Gas plants.

The Rate of subsidy is given below:

Capacity of the Plant	Subsidy for SC/ST, SF/MF Western Ghats notified hilly areas.	Subsidy for others
1 Cu.m. to 10 Cu.m.	2300	1800

Additional subsidy for the linking Bio-Gas plants with sanitary toilets is Rs. 500/- per plant.

source:

District Rural Development Agency (DRDA)

Celeb speak in india on green.ndtv.com

2008-10-10T23:06:00.000-07:00

Abhishek Bachchan, actor

We must save our environment for the future of our children. I care, do you? Join the NDTV Campaign.

Leander Paes, tennis player

Our Children are the next generation, and it's our responsibilty to keep the planet clean and give our children a better environment to grow up in, please join me and NDTV in this Go Green Campaign, the largest environment campaign in India.

Kapil Sibal, Union Minister

When you build your next house, conserve the water that nature provides you. Join the NDTV Toyota Campaign. I care...do you?

Baichung Bhutia, football player

I have scored many crucial goals in my life but the most important goal right now is to save our environment. Join the NDTV Toyota environment campaign for a greener tomorrow.

Harman Baweja, actor

Cut down the electricity in your house and save the environment and join the NDTV campaign.

Lisa Ray, actor

I want to ask you all to refill your plastic bottles. Don't keep buying them, we don't have any place to put them and as a result they only end up mucking up our environment. God knows we need more space and clean air to breathe. Join the NDTV-Toyota campaign for a greener, fresher and plastic free tomorrow.

Shobhaa De, author

I prefer candles to electricity. So switch off today for a better tomorrow. Join the NDTV-Toyota Environment Campaign.

John Abraham, actor

On World Environment Day, I pledge to use my car less and my bike more, so I can save petrol and reduce carbon emissions. So let us all make a difference. Join the NDTV Campaign to save the environment.

Narain Karthikeyan, Sportsman

Let us start taking care of our earth today. Join the NDTV green movement for a better tomorrow.

Zila Khan, Singer

Please join NDTV save the environment campaign for a greener future.

Jeffrey Archer, Author

Let us not kill ourselves. What we do to the environment today will impact generations to come. I’m delighted to support NDTV in this amazing adventure. Wishing you the very best of luck.

Amaan and Ayaan Ali Bangash- Sarod players

You do not need to go far away to do something for the environment. You can do it right here in your neighbourhood park. Plant a tree today, for a greener tomorrow.

The ECO facts

2008-10-10T23:04:00.000-07:00

		Ice caps are white, and reflect sunlight, much of which is reflected back into space, in turn cooling Earth; but with the ice caps melting, the only reflector is the ocean. Darker colors absorb sunlight, further warming the Earth.

		Scientists blame global warming for the declining penguin population, as warmer waters and smaller ice floes force the birds to travel further to find food.

		Stressed by cyanide fishing, harbor dredging, coral mining, deforestation, coastal development, agricultural runoff, careless divers, and now global warming, there is a devastating loss of coral across the world.

		With accelerated global warming, and the ice covering melting, the earth would be absorbing more sunlight, and is on its way to becoming hotter than before.

		Due to global warming the polar ice cap in the Arctic region is shrinking and rupturing; if this continues, summers in the Arctic would become ice-free by the end of this century.

		Everytime we burn oil, coal and gas to generate electricity and power, we produce the heat trapping gases that cause global warming.

		Deforestation is one of the main causes of atmospheric carbon dioxide; burning and cutting millions of acres of trees each year, it is responsible for 20-25 per cent of all carbon emissions.

		Water vapor is the most prevalent and most powerful greenhouse gas on the planet; it holds onto two-thirds of the heat trapped by all the greenhouse gases.

		Every week about 20 species of plants and animals become extinct!

		Rainforests are being cut down at the rate of 100 acres per minute!

		One-third of the water used in most homes is flushed down the toilet.

		A single quart of motor oil, if disposed of improperly, can contaminate up to 2,000,000 gallons of fresh water.

		Plastic bags and other plastic garbage thrown into the ocean kill as many as 1,000,000 sea creatures every year.

		A modern glass bottle would take 4000 years or more to decompose -- and even longer if it's in the landfill.

		Recycling one glass bottle saves enough energy to light a 100-watt bulb for four hours

		Energy-saving lightbulbs last around ten times longer than ordinary lightbulbs- over 10,000 hours.

		A laptop is more environment friendly than a desktop. It consumes five times less electricity.

		An aluminum can that is thrown away will still be a can 500 years from now!

		A single tree will absorb one ton of carbon dioxide over its lifetime. Shade provided by trees can also reduce your air conditioning bill by 10 to 15 per cent.

		Tissue paper is a major source of waste. It takes 60,00,000 trees to make 1 year's worth of tissues for the world.

		A ton of recycled paper equals or saves 17 trees in paper production.

		A plant on your desk acts as a natural filter, absorbing airborne pollutants and computer radiation while replenishing oxygen levels.

		Lawns only need watering once a week, post rain only after two weeks. Do watering early morning for minimal evaporation and water conservation.

		Crawling traffic contributes eight times as much air pollution as traffic moving at regular highway speed.

		Avoiding just 10 miles of driving every week would eliminate about 500 pounds of carbon dioxide emissions a year!

		Turn off the tap when brushing your teeth and soaping your hands. This can save around 16 litres a day. That's 11,000 litre of water per person per year.

		A dripping tap can waste over 20,000 litres of water every year. source : http://green.ndtv.com

Environment: Recycling of plastic waste

2008-10-02T02:49:00.001-07:00

In this downloadable document the mechanical recycling of plastics from industrial and consumer waste is discussed. The re-utilisation of waste plastics may lead to a reduction of the use of virgin materials and of the use of energy, thus also a reduction of carbon dioxide emissions. In some cases, plastics recycling may be profitable. However, a number of factors can complicate the practice of plastics recycling, such as the collection of the plastics waste, separation of different types of plastics, cleaning of the waste and possible pollution of the plastics. A further complicating factor is the low-value nature of most of the products that can be manufactured from recycled plastics.

Publication date: February, 2006

Obtain Environment: Recycling of plastic waste

Pages: 7
Size: 136 Kb
Download time: 3 Sec (at 56k6)

Obtain document

Wal-Mart to cut global plastic shopping bag waste

2008-10-02T02:48:00.000-07:00

Wal-Mart Stores Inc said on Thursday it will cut its worldwide plastic shopping bag waste by an average of 33 per cent per store by 2013
, an effort the world's biggest retailer said could eliminate more than 135 million pounds of plastic waste globally.

To meet that goal, Wal-Mart stores will give out fewer bags and encourage shoppers to use reusable ones.

The announcement is part of the discount retailer's overarching goal of one day creating zero waste.

It also comes amid a global push to curb the use of plastic bags, which environmentalists say can take up to 1,000 years to disintegrate and pose threats to marine life, birds and other animals.

Earlier this year, San Francisco became the first US city to outlaw non-biodegradable plastic bags from large supermarkets, and the state of California has enacted a law that requires large stores to take back plastic bags and encourage their reuse.

Wal-Mart said its stores in Mexico and the United States are introducing cheaper, affordable reusable bags. While in the United States it currently sells a reusable bag for $1, the retailer said it will begin offering a new reusable bag for 50 cents each.
To reach its goal of reducing plastic bag waste globally by 33 per cent, Wal-Mart is aiming for a 25 per cent reduction from its US stores and a 50 percent reduction from its international operations.

Enforce safe disposal of plastic waste

2008-10-02T02:46:00.000-07:00

A legislation to enforce safe disposal of plastic waste was necessary, said Alagappan Moses of the department of Environmental Science, Bishop Heber College,Bangalore.

Speaking at the launch of `Poly Blast- 2004,' organised by the Department of Visual Communication, Holy Cross College, he stressed the need for a legislative support to the campaign. For, the production of plastic went up from 1.88 million tonnes in 1995-96 to four million tonnes in 2001. Though plastic fetched foreign exchange to a tune of Rs.5500 crores per annum and provided direct and indirect employment to over two lakh persons, the damage caused by plastic waste to humans, wildlife and marine life was colossal.

Mr. Alagappan said plastic waste accounted for 15 per cent of the garbage in Tiruchi city limits, while the national average was projected at 10 per cent in 2000. The method of segregation at source and a strong system of recycling plastic waste followed in European countries should be replicated in India, he said, and observed that plastic could not be moulded if it was recycled more than twice. While burning of plastics led to emission of dioxins, the causative factor of cancer, incineration at temperatures in excess of 1,500 degree centigrade was advisable, he said.

Un-recycled plastic, he suggested, could be put to large-scale industrial application for tapping the benefits of its bacterial slime.

The hope for a safe environment, free from the debilitating impact of improper disposal of plastic waste, was possible if manufacturers adopted the latest technology by which the resins used for pellets could be freed from chloride to make the plastic products free from toxins. He said India had surpassed developed countries by recycling 60 per cent of plastic waste.

Earlier, elaborating on the international initiatives on environmental protection, Mr. Alagappan said of the 27 principles adopted at the Rio Summit three pertained to plastic. The National Environment Policy - 1970 of the United States recognised the right of citizens for a healthy environment and provided for formation of a council on environmental quality and convening of a global conference.

Mr. Alagappan insisted that notwithstanding the international and national summits, the educated masses should build a partnership with the public, for making their awareness campaign effective.

source : The Hindu

Large Hadron Collider

2008-09-14T22:12:00.000-07:00

The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) located at CERN began conducting an experiment to recreate a miniature version of the "Big Bang" on Wednesday, September 10, 2008.
Scientists hope to find answers to questions about black holes, dark matter and why the universe appears the way it does.
he LHC was successfully turned on and two beams circled the 17-mile underground ring. The first going clockwise and the second going counter clockwise during different trial runs. CERN has not announced when it would begin experimenting with the actual collisions of protons.
Fast Facts

1. The "Big Bang Experiment" will be conducted by the Large Hadron Collider at CERN.
2. The collider circulates a beam of protons around a 17-mile-long tunnel.
3. Estimated project cost: $10 billion.
4. On September 10, 2008, the collider was turned on for the first time.

Big Bang Experiment Fears

Skeptics questioned the safety of the experiment and a group of scientists tried to challenge the project in court. Some believed the black holes would grow and "swallow the planet." Experts involved with the project said the claim is nonsense.

Scientist Death Threats

Groups opposing the "Big Bang Experiment" have tried to challenge CERN's project in court. Some of the scientists involved in the project have received death threats.CERN scientists said that the experiment could in theory create small black holes, but it is a safe experiment overall.

'Big Bang' experiment starts well

2008-09-14T22:08:00.000-07:00

Scientists have hailed a successful switch-on for an enormous experiment which will recreate the conditions a few moments after the Big Bang.

They have now fired two beams of particles called protons around the 27km-long tunnel which houses the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).

The LHC has been in construction for some 13 years

The £5bn machine on the Swiss-French border is designed to smash protons together with cataclysmic force.

Scientists hope it will shed light on fundamental questions in physics.

The first - clockwise - beam completed its first circuit of the underground tunnel at just before 0930 BST. The second - anti-clockwise - beam successfully circled the ring after 1400 BST.

So far, all the beams have been stopped, or "dumped", after just a few circuits.

On Thursday, engineers hoped to inject clockwise and anti-clockwise protons again, but this time they plan to "close the orbit", letting the beams run continuously for a few seconds each.

The BBC understands that low-energy collisions could happen in the next few days. This will allow engineers to calibrate instruments, but will not produce data of scientific interest.

"There it is," project leader Lyn Evans said when the beam completed its lap. There were cheers in the control room when engineers heard of the successful test.

"Never Forgetting" Helps Elephants Survive, Study Says

2008-08-22T03:38:00.000-07:00

Memories of drought remain with old female elephants and could help their clans survive during hard times, new research suggests. Scientists made the discovery after reviewing data on elephant herds gathered in Tanzania's Tarangire National Park, which experienced a severe drought from 1958 to 1961.

When a second extreme drought hit the area again in 1993, elephant groups with mothers who lived through the drought 35 years earlier left the park to seek food and water, ensuring a better survival rate for their clan.

"The data show that the family groups that left the park fared much better than those that remained," said lead study author Charles Foley, a researcher with the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS).

During the more recent drought, two elephant groups that left the park in search of better food and water lost fewer than 10 percent of their elephant calves, while a sole family group that stayed lost 40 percent of its calves.

During nondrought conditions, only 2 percent of calves die each year. Foley and colleagues from WCS and the Zoological Society of London detailed their findings earlier this month in the journal Biology Letters.

Elephant Memory

In the wild, elephants can live well into their late 60s. In East Africa, extreme droughts occur every 45 to 50 years, on average.

Experts believe there could be strong selective pressure for elephant matriarchs to live long enough to experience at least two droughts during their lifetime and to retain key information on how to migrate to survive.

In Tarangire National Park, the oldest elephant matriarchs of groups that left during the 1993 drought were five years or older when the 1958-61 drought occurred. These females likely guided the family groups in their clans to drought refuges outside the park, researchers say.

The group that stayed behind in Tarangire in 1993 had no individual old enough to have experienced the severe drought of the past. That probably explains why the group didn't leave, Foley said. "In other words, this would provide a selective reason for why 'elephants don't forget,'" Foley said. Iain Douglas-Hamilton, a zoologist and founder of Save the Elephants, says that researchers long suspected the evolutionary advantage of having matriarchs as a memory bank.

"The speculation was there and was written about," Douglas-Hamilton said, noting that the new study is the first "to really prove that there was a selective advantage in terms of survival that occurred with groups that had the older members."

In elephant society, females lead their family groups, which is why the ability to remember carries more weight in females than males.

Protection Needed

Researchers behind the new study say it shows the importance of protecting veteran elephants as droughts begin to increase as a result of global warming. "If the few remaining older individuals are eliminated from a population, the impact can extend far beyond just their family group," Foley said.

"The effects of removing old individuals may not be seen for 10, 15, even 20 years after the event. But will eventually impact the population during the next severe drought," he added.

Foley said park managers should strive to protect older elephants, particularly in countries where culling is used as a management tool. "The shooting of older animals should be avoided at all costs," he said.

Japan to offer incentives on clean diesel cars

2008-08-22T03:35:00.000-07:00

TOKYO (Reuters) - Japan is looking to introduce incentives for consumers buying clean diesel cars starting next fiscal year in a bid to reduce carbon dioxide emissions, a government official said on Thursday.

Details including the credit amount will be firmed up by the end of the year with an eye to implementing the incentives from next April, an official at the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) said.

Subject to the incentives will be diesel-engine cars that clear tighter regulations on nitrogen oxide (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) emissions to be introduced in Japan in October 2009.

Nissan Motor Co will become the first automaker to launch a diesel car that meets the criteria next month, when it rolls out the diesel X-Trail sport utility vehicle.

Among other Japanese automakers, Honda Motor Co is planning a clean diesel car next year, while Mitsubishi Motors Corp and Subaru-maker Fuji Heavy Industries Ltd have also promised a diesel car for Japan.

Daimler AG's Mercedes-Benz is currently the only brand selling diesel passenger cars in Japan. The E-Class diesel sedan, which costs more than 8 million yen ($72,970), would not clear Japan's next emissions standards.

Diesel cars are around 20-30 percent more fuel-efficient than comparable gasoline cars and emit less carbon dioxide, linked to global warming. They are expected to carry a price premium of 300,000 yen to 400,000 yen ($2,700-$3,600) over gasoline cars, the METI official said, part of which will be subsidized.

The new regulations will limit emissions of PM, a component of soot, to around a third of current levels and equal to the standard for gasoline cars. The limit on NOx emissions will be nearly halved to 0.08 grams per km, compared with 0.05 grams for gasoline.

The Japanese government offered consumer incentives on hybrid cars for nine years from 1998 to help promote the fuel-efficient, gasoline-electric vehicles when they were first launched.

($1=109.63 Yen)

China sets up first environmental exchange

2008-08-06T09:49:00.000-07:00

Currently Chinese sellers sell carbon emission quota at between eight and
10 euros (12 to 15 dollars) per tonne, compared to the international level of around
17 euros per tonneChina has launched its first environmental exchange in Beijing,
aiming to eventually provide a platform for emission quota trading.

The Beijing Environmental Exchange will be a trading platform for environmental protection technology as well as sulfur dioxide and chemical oxygen demand emission permits, the China Beijing Equity Exchange said in a statement on its website.

"The Beijing Environment Exchange will fully play its role as a market platform bringing together domestic and foreign companies, agencies, banks and investment banks," Xiong Yan, chairman of the exchange, said in the statement.

The exchange will report directly to government departments including the environmental protection ministry and the National Development and Reform Commission, China's top economic planning agency.

It is the first environmental equity trading institution in China and will initially focus on environmental technology business, with an aim to finally incorporating carbon emission trading, said Tuesday's Beijing Evening News.

It is also expected to help lift domestic carbon emission quota prices to the international level by providing access to trading information for local sellers, according to the report.

Currently Chinese sellers sell carbon emission quota at between eight and 10 euros (12 to 15 dollars) per tonne, compared to the international level of around 17 euros per tonne, it said.

Kick the Habit! Towards a Low Carbon Economy

2008-06-10T22:09:00.000-07:00

The World Environment Day slogan for 2008 is Kick the Habit! Towards a Low Carbon Economy. Recognising that climate change is becoming the defining issue of our era, UNEP is asking countries, companies and communities to focus on greenhouse gas emissions and how to reduce them. The World Environment Day will highlight resources and initiatives that promote low carbon economies and life-styles, such as improved energy efficiency, alternative energy sources, forest conservation and eco-friendly consumption.
The main international celebrations of World Environment Day 2008 will be held in New Zealand. UNEP is honoured that the city of Wellington will be hosting this United Nations day

Source : http://www.unep.org/

June 5th: The World Environment Day

2008-06-10T22:01:00.001-07:00

World Environment Day, commemorated each year on 5 June, is one of the principal vehicles through which the United Nations stimulates worldwide awareness of the environment and enhances political attention and action.
World Environment Day was established by the United Nations General Assembly in 1972 to mark the opening of the Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment. Another resolution, adopted by the General Assembly the same day, led to the creation of UNEP.
The day's agenda is to give a human face to environmental issues; empower people to become active agents of sustainable and equitable development; promote an understanding that communities are pivotal to changing attitudes towards environmental issues; and advocate partnership, which will ensure all nations and peoples enjoy a safer and more prosperous future. Source: http://www.unep.org/

Bhopal: he Union Carbide gas leak

2008-05-23T10:51:00.001-07:00

An environmental disaster is a disaster that is due to human activity and should not be confused with natural disasters. In this case, the impact of humans' alteration of the ecosystem has led to widespread and/or long-lasting consequences. It can include the deaths of animals (including humans) and plant systems, or severe disruption of human life, possibly requiring migration.

December 3, 1984 has become a memorable day for the city of Bhopal in Madya Pradesh county, India. Shortly after midnight, a poisonous gas cloud escaped from the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide factory. The cloud contained 15 metric tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC), covering an area of more than 30 square miles. The gas leak killed at least 4.000 local residents instantly and caused health problems such as oedema for at least 50.000 to perhaps 500.000 people. These health problems killed around 15.000 more victims in the years that followed. Approximately 100.000 people still suffer from chronic disease consequential to gas exposure, today. Research conducted by the BBC in 2004 pointed out that this pollution still causes people to fall ill, and ten more die every year. This event is now known as the worst industrial environmental disaster to ever have occurred.

The cause of the accident has been researched after the disaster. Apparently water ended up in MIC storage tanks, causing an exothermal reaction that released an amount of poisonous gas large enough to open the safety valves. Normally scrubbers would intercept escaping gas, but these were temporarily out of order for repair.
Research showed that factory personnel neglected a number of safety procedures. There were no valves to prevent water from entering the storage tanks. The cooling installation of the tanks and the flaring installation that might have flared the gas that was released were out of order.Safety was very low in this factory of Union Carbide, compared to its other locations. The safety procedures were neglected because of budget cuts.

Gobar Gas

2008-05-14T04:14:00.001-07:00

It's been a wild, exciting ride . . . but our blindly wasteful squandering of the planet's fossil fuels will soon be a thing of the past. In the United States alone (the worst example, perhaps, but not really unusual among "modern" nations), every man, woman and child consumes an average of three gallons of oil each day. That's well over two hundred billion gallons a year.
If we continue burning off petroleum at only this rate—which isn't very likely since population is climbing and the big oil companies remain chained to "sell-more-tomorrow" economics—-experts predict the world will run out of refineable oil within (are you ready for this?) 30 years.
So where does that leave us? Well, number one, we obviously must get serious about populatio n control and per-capita consumption of power and, number two, if we don't want to see brownouts and rationing of the power we do use . . . we'd better start looking around for ecologically-sound alternative sources of energy.
And there are alternatives. One potent reservoir that's hardly been tapped is methane gas.
Hundreds of millions of cubic feet of methane—sometimes called "swamp" or bio-gas—are generated every year by the decomposition of organic material. It's a near-twin of the natural gas that big utility companies pump out of the ground and which so many of us use for heating our homes and for cooking. Instead of being harnessed like natural gas, however, methane has traditionally been considered as merely a dangerous nuisance that should be gotten rid of as fast as possible. Only recently have a few thoughtful men begun to regard methane as a potentially revolutionary source of controllable energy.

Facts about Gobar Gas

2008-05-14T03:55:00.000-07:00

In Hindi GOBAR means Cow dung.
Cow dung gas is 55-65% methane, 30-35% carbon dioxide, with some hydrogen, nitrogen and other traces. Its heat value is about 600 B.T.U.'s per cubic foot.
A sample analyzed by the Gas Council Laboratory at Watson House in England contained 68% methane, 31% carbon dioxide and 1% nitrogen. It tested at 678 B.T.U.
This compares with natural gas's 80% methane, which yields a B.T.U. value of about 1,000.
Gobar gas may be improved by filtering it through limewater (to remove carbon dioxide), iron filings (to absorb corrosive hydrogen sulphide) and calcium chloride (to extract water vapor).
Cow dung slurry is composed of 1.8-2.4% nitrogen (N), 1.01.2% phosphorus (P 2 0 5 ), 0.6-0.8% potassium (K 2 0) and from 50-75% organic humus.
About one cubic foot of gas may be generated from one pound of cow manure at 75° F. This is enough gas to cook a day's meals for 4-6 people.
About 225 cubic feet of gas equals one gallon of gasoline. The manure produced by one cow in one year can be converted to methane which is the equivalent of over 50 gallons of gasoline.
Gas engines require 18 cubic feet of methane per horsepower per hour.

This ancient resource of energy basically from india can be used globally as an alternative fuel.

That will make no harm to your work and also your environmnet.

The biogas plant consists of two components: a digester (or fermentation tank) and a gas holder. The digester is a cube-shaped or cylindrical waterproof container with an inlet into which the fermentable mixture is introduced in the form of a liquid slurry. The gas holder is normally an airproof steel container that, by floating like a ball on the fermentation mix, cuts off air to the digester (anaerobiosis) and collects the gas generated. In one of the most widely used designs , the gas holder is equipped with a gas outlet, while the digester is provided with an overflow pipe to lead the sludge out into a drainage pit.

Biogas - from your kitchen, in your backyard

2008-05-09T01:39:00.000-07:00

Think twice before you dump that banana peel or spinach stem into the bin. That and more waste from your kitchen can be converted into biogas to supplement your energy needs -- that too in your own backyard.
i will tell you how.
All one needs for the kit is two 1,000 cubic litres of plastic tanks (equivalent to the common syntax tanks seen in most households) and a daily supply of kitchen waste. And homemade biogas, essentially a combination of methane and carbon dioxide, is ready to be used as fuel.
It took almost three years to develop the compact biogas plant system and convince Indian scientists that kitchen waste was a more efficient source of methane than cow dung, the traditional source of biogas.
One kg of kitchen waste in 24 hours can produce the same amount of biogas as 40 kg of cow dung in 40 days. That means more than 400 times efficiency can be achieved by using kitchen waste as compared to cow dung.
Methane-producing bacteria belonged to a group called archebacteria or ancient bacteria, which evolved on earth when there was no oxygen. The only places where the bacteria can be found are in the intestines of animals and the bottom of the sea.
The bacteria eats what we eat and is thrown out along with the faecal matter. That is why I started using waste food as a source of biogas. The kit has two air-sealed tanks, one on top of the other. The archebacteria that breaks down the waste will only work if it is completely airtight.
It is a myth that cow dung is the only source of biogas. In fact, dung does not have methanogenic bacteria - some bacteria have to be added to the dung to produce biogas.
The systemis to be installed either on the terrace or in the backyard where there is ample sunshine, because the bacteria perform better when the temperature is higher. It is ideal for restaurants and hostels where there is a large amount kitchen waste and also offers an efficient garbage disposal mechanism.
The costs are minimal and the kit can be installed within a budget of Rs.6, 000.
Many hostels and restaurants in india have started using the system, thus considerably bringing down the use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).
According to a report, 800 tonnes of agri-waste is generated in India annually; this can easily be converted into high-grade energy. Methane can also be used to drive vehicles. Just like green revolution made us food sufficient, using agri waste to produce methane can make us energy sufficient. This bio-fuel can be the green revolution to the world of modern technology which wants new things benefitting to the mankind with subject to the environment.

Irrigation

2008-04-27T09:31:00.000-07:00

Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops. In crop production it is mainly used in dry areas and in periods of rainfall shortfalls, but also to protect plants against frost.

Additionally irrigation helps to suppress weed growing in rice fields. In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed farming. Irrigation is often studied together with drainage, which is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area.

Types of irrigation

Surface irrigation

In surface irrigation systems water moves over and across the land by simple gravity flow in order to wet it and to infiltrate into the soil. Surface irrigation can be subdivided into furrow, borderstrip or basin irrigation. It is often called flood irrigation when the irrigation results in flooding or near flooding of the cultivated land.

Localized irrigation

Localized irrigation is a system where water is distributed under low pressure through a piped network, in a pre-determined pattern, and applied as a small discharge to each plant or adjacent to it. Drip irrigation, spray or micro-sprinkler irrigation and bubbler irrigation belong to this category of irrigation methods.

Drip Irrigation

Drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, functions as its name suggests. Water is delivered at or near the root zone of plants, drop by drop. This method can be the most water-efficient method of irrigation, if managed properly, since evaporation and runoff are minimized.Recent technology developments on drip installers like the drip installer at New Mexico State University Arrow Head Center, places the line underground and covers the slit leaving no soil exposed.

Sprinkler irrigation

In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one or more central locations within the field and distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns. A system utilizing sprinklers, sprays, or guns mounted overhead on permanently installed risers is often referred to as a solid-set irrigation system.

and many more.....

Farm Management

2008-04-27T09:18:00.000-07:00

Reduce total nitrogen loading

· Ensure livestock feed rations are not any higher than necessary to meet production targets. This will save both feed costs and excess nitrogen loss in the manure.

· Use nitrogen from sources available on the farm first, where possible (e.g., manure), before buying any nitrogen sources produced off-farm.

Prevent runoff from manure or other nutrient materials

· Store manure properly until it is ready for land application. Be sure your storage area is properly sited, designed and sized.

Manage fields to avoid excess nitrate that could leach to groundwater

· Identify fields and areas sensitive to nitrogen in areas where nutrient applications are planned. For instance, sandy or gravelly soils, and soils with shallow water tables are more susceptible to nitrogen leaching.

· Match nitrogen applications with crop requirements. Use the spring or pre-sidedress soil nitrogen test where available (e.g., for corn and barley).

· In your Nutrient Management Plan, account for nitrogen contributions from green manure crops and any previous crop rotations.

· In your Nutrient Management Plan, account for nitrogen from any manure or biosolid application.

· Apply most of the nitrogen just before the time of maximum crop uptake (e.g., sidedress corn).

· Split applications of nitrogen through techniques such as fertigation.

· Practise crop rotations to make efficient use of nitrogen and maintain healthy soils.

· Establish cover crops as needed to tie up any excess nitrogen at the end of the season.

Manage nutrient application to avoid ammonium losses to surface water

· Practice timely tillage to incorporate manure, balancing the risk of soil compaction with the losses of nitrogen to the atmosphere if the manure is not incorporated quickly.

· Avoid applying manure near surface water or on steeply sloping land.

· Keep application rates low enough to prevent runoff.

· Mix manure into the soil as soon possible after applying it.

· On tile-drained land, keep application rates of liquid manure below 40 m³/ha (3,600 gal/ac) or pre-till the field before applying it. This will help prevent the movement of manure directly to tile through cracks or earthworm channels.

· Use buffer strips and erosion control structures to filter runoff before it enters surface water. Buffer strips in riparian zones have proven to reduce nutrient movement off the field into nearby surface water sources. Buffer strips consume excess nutrients before they flow into surface water and enhance opportunities for groundwater denitrification.

Ozone Layer Depletion

2008-04-25T03:58:00.000-07:00

ozone depletion: Destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer, which shields earth from ultraviolet radiation harmful to life. This destruction of ozone is caused by the breakdown of certain compounds that contain chlorine, bromine, or both (chlorofluorocarbons or halons), which occurs when they reach the stratosphere and then catalytically destroy ozone molecules.

ozone hole: A well-defined, large-scale area of significant thinning of the ozone layer. It occurs over Antarctica each spring.

ozone layer: The protective stratum in the atmosphere, about 15 miles above the ground, that absorbs some of the sun’s ultraviolet rays, thereby reducing the amount of potentially harmful radiation that reaches earth’s surface.

ozone precursors: Chemicals that contribute to the formation of ozone.

Sunlight contains some ultraviolet light, and when we expose ourselves to too much of it, we get a sunburn. Over time, too much exposure to ultraviolet light can lead to cataracts and skin cancer. The earth has a layer in the upper atmosphere, consisting mostly of ozone gas, that filters out most of the ultraviolet in the sun's radiation. Recently there has been scientific evidence that we have been releasing gases that damage this layer. Our country and others have reacted by invoking legislation that should eliminate these contaminants from the atmosphere.

The ozone (O3) layer in the stratosphere protects life on earth from exposure to dangerous levels of ultraviolet light. It does so by filtering out harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. When CFCs and other ozone-degrading chemicals are emitted, they mix with the atmosphere and eventually rise to the stratosphere. There, the chlorine and the bromine they contain catalyze the destruction of ozone. This destruction is occurring at a more rapid rate than ozone can be created through natural processes.

The chemicals most responsible for the destruction of the ozone layer are chlorofluorocarbons, carbon tetrachloride, methyl bromide, methyl chloroform, and halons. Chlorofluorocarbons have long been widely used as coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners and as foaming agents, solvents, and aerosol propellants. Carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform are solvents used for essential industrial applications. In the United States, carbon tetrachloride is now used almost entirely as a feedstock for the production of chlorofluorocarbons. Hydrogenated CFCs (HCFCs) have many of the same uses as CFCs and are increasingly employed as interim substitutes for CFCs. Halons have been used in fire extinguishers.

Health Effects of Exposure to Lead

2008-04-25T03:50:00.000-07:00

Lead, a naturally occurring metal, has been used to produce gasoline, ceramic products, paints, and solder. In homes built before 1978, lead-based paint and lead-contaminated dust from paint are the primary sources of exposure to lead. Major initiatives have been implemented to reduce lead exposure by phasing lead out of gasoline, paint, solder, and plumbing fixtures.

Health problems from lead exposure are a major environmental health problem because exposure to lead is widespread and can cause health effects at relatively low levels. Substantial data are available to link lead exposure with health effects. Lead adversely affects the nervous system, can lower intelligence, and has been associated with behavioral and attention problems. It also affects the kidney and blood-forming organs.Children and the developing fetus are more vulnerable to the effects of lead than adults.

The level of lead in blood has long been used as an indicator of exposure to lead. And, because the linkage between lead exposure and health effects is so strong, blood lead is also used as an indicator of adverse effects on the nervous system.

In the 1970s, lead poisoning occurred increasingly in children who did not live in dwellings with lead-based paint, suggesting that another source or sources of lead exposure were of even greater concern than lead paint. Research found that combustion of leaded gasoline was the primary source of lead in the environment. In the 1970s, EPA promulgated regulations to ban lead in gasoline. Since that time, concentrations of lead in blood samples and in ambient air have declined significantly (Exhibit 4-7). In young children, the median concentration of lead in blood decreased by 85 percent from 1976 to 1999-2000 based on nationwide surveys.

But national averages of blood levels tell only part of the story. Between 1999 and 2000, approximately 430,000 children ages 1 to 5 (about 2 percent) had elevated blood lead levels (10 µg/dL or greater) from eating paint chips or inhaling lead-containing dust in older homes, primarily in urban areas. Even today, lead poisoning is considered to be a serious environmental hazard in young children in the U.S. Several major metropolitan areas, including Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, Palo Alto, and St. Louis, are evaluating blood lead levels of young children, focusing on areas at high risk (i.e., older housing and poorer neighborhoods), to study and address potential problems (see box, “Children’s Lead Levels Remain a Concern in Urban Hot Spots”). These blood lead screening programs, however, do not report in a systematic fashion to a central location where the data can be evaluated.

Environment Pollution and Disease

2008-04-25T03:48:00.000-07:00

Many studies in people have demonstrated an association between environmental exposure and certain diseases or other health problems. Examples include radon and lung cancer; arsenic and cancer in several organs; lead and nervous system disorders; disease-causing bacteria such as E. coli O157: H7 (e.g., in contaminated meat and water) and gastrointestinal illness and death; and particulate matter and aggravation of heart and respiratory diseases.

Elucidating the linkage between environmental pollution and disease is challenging. We understand this linkage fairly well for some pollutants, such as those listed above, but poorly for others. This section describes some of the challenges to elucidating those linkages, and uses examples to highlight the role that indicators can play in strengthening our understanding of that linkage and in supporting environmental management efforts.

History of life through time

2008-04-25T03:46:00.000-07:00

Life! It's everywhere on Earth; you can find living organisms from the poles to the equator, from the bottom of the sea to several miles in the air, from freezing waters to dry valleys to undersea thermal vents to groundwater thousands of feet below the Earth's surface. Over the last 3.7 billion years or so, living organisms on the Earth have diversified and adapted to almost every environment imaginable.
This exhibit provides a survey of that biodiversity through time, focusing on major lineages of organisms. Many of these lineages have gone extinct or currently exist at a much lower diversity than in the past, so there may be large exhibits on groups of organisms that are unfamiliar to you. They are featured because they play an important role in the history of life on Earth.

Effects of nitrogen Nitrogen

2008-04-25T03:42:00.000-07:00

Nitrogen is a common element in nature. Approximately 78% of the earth?s atmosphere consists of nitrogen gas (N2). As nitrogen naturally cycles through the air, soil and water, it undergoes various chemical and biological transformations. These reactions result in the formation of nitrogen-based compounds and molecules, which are essential for the growth of plants, animals and humans. Agricultural production is dependent, in part, on the cycling of nitrogen within the rural environment.

Nitrogen forms and pathways within an agricultural production systemIdeally, it would be most economically and environmentally beneficial to keep all the nitrogen in this tight cycle for food production. In reality, however, some leakage occurs. Where there is too much nitrogen leakage, there can be environmental harm.

This Factsheet describes some of the impacts on the environment that can result when certain forms of agricultural nitrogen enter our surface water, groundwater and air, and identifies best management practices for minimizing nitrogen losses.

Tsunami Videos

2008-04-25T03:36:00.000-07:00

See the real video exclusively
to see just click here Tsunami - Incredible Video Footages
tsunami
Tsunami - Koh Lanta, Thailand 2004

Earth Day

2008-04-22T09:46:00.001-07:00

Earth Day is either of two different observances, both held annually during spring in the northern hemisphere, and autumn in the southern hemisphere. These are intended to inspire awareness of and appreciation for the Earth's environment. The United Nations celebrates an Earth Day each year on the March equinox, a tradition which was founded by peace activist John McConnell in 1969. A second Earth Day, which was founded by US politician Gaylord Nelson as an environmental teach-in in the late 1960s, is celebrated in many countries each year on April 22.

In September 1969, at a conference in Seattle, Washington, U.S. Senator Gaylord Nelson of Wisconsin announced that in the spring of 1970 there would be a nationwide grassroots demonstration on the environment. Senator Nelson first proposed the nationwide environmental protest to thrust the environment onto the national agenda.” "It was a gamble," he recalls, "but it worked."

Five months before the first April 22 Earth Day, on Sunday, November 30, 1969, The New York Times carried a lengthy article by Gladwin Hill reporting on the rising tide of environmental events

Noise pollution

2008-04-19T03:24:00.000-07:00

Noise pollution (or environmental noise) is displeasing human or machine created sound that disrupts the activity or happiness of human or animal life. A common form of noise pollution is from transportation, principally motor vehicles.
The source of most noise worldwide is transportation systems, motor vehicle noise, but also including aircraft noise and rail noise.
Poor urban planning may give rise to noise pollution, since side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can result in noise pollution in the residential area.
Other sources are office equipment, factory machinery, construction work, appliances, power tools, lighting hum and audio entertainment systems.

Noise from recreational vehicles has become a problem.

POINT AND NONPOINT SOURCES

2008-04-19T01:28:00.000-07:00

According to the American College Dictionary, pollution is defined as: ?to make foul or unclean; dirty.?
Water pollution occurs when a body of water is adversely affected due to the addition of large amounts of materials to the water. When it is unfit for its intended use, water is considered polluted. Two types of water pollutants exist; point source and non-point source. Point sources of pollution occur when harmful substances are emitted directly into a body of water. The Exxon Valdez oil spill best illustrates a point source water pollution.
A non-point source delivers pollutants indirectly through environmental changes. An example of this type of water pollution is when fertilizer from a field is carried into a stream by rain, in the form of run-off which in turn effects aquatic life.
The technology exists for point sources of pollution to be monitored and regulated, although political factors may complicate matters. Nonpoint sources are much more difficult to control. Pollution arising from non-point sources accounts for a majority of the contaminants in streams and lakes.

What is Air Pollution?

2008-04-19T01:12:00.000-07:00

Air is the ocean we breathe. Air supplies us with oxygen which is essential for our bodies to live. Air is 99.9% nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor and inert gases. Human activities can release substances into the air, some of which can cause problems for humans, plants, and animals.

There are several main types of pollution and well-known effects of pollution which are commonly discussed. These include smog, acid rain, the greenhouse effect, and "holes" in the ozone layer. Each of these problems has serious implications for our health and well-being as well as for the whole environment.

One type of air pollution is the release of particles into the air from burning fuel for energy. Diesel smoke is a good example of this particulate matter . The particles are very small pieces of matter measuring about 2.5 microns or about .0001 inches. This type of pollution is sometimes referred to as "black carbon" pollution. The exhaust from burning fuels in automobiles, homes, and industries is a major source of pollution in the air. Some authorities believe that even the burning of wood and charcoal in fireplaces and barbeques can release significant quanitites of soot into the air.

Another type of pollution is the release of noxious gases, such as sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and chemical vapors. These can take part in further chemical reactions once they are in the atmosphere, forming smog and acid rain.

Pollution also needs to be considered inside our homes, offices, and schools. Some of these pollutants can be created by indoor activities such as smoking and cooking. In the United States, we spend about 80-90% of our time inside buildings, and so our exposure to harmful indoor pollutants can be serious.

Tsunami

2008-03-28T03:27:00.000-07:00

A tsunami (pronounced /tsuːˈnɑːmi/) is a series of waves created when a body of water, such as an ocean, is rapidly displaced. Earthquakes, mass movements above or below water, some volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions, landslides, underwater earthquakes, large asteroid impacts and testing with nuclear weapons at sea all have the potential to generate a tsunami. The effects of a tsunami are always devastating due to the immense volumes of water and energy involved. Since meteors are small they will not generate a tsunami.
A tsunami can be generated when converging or destructive plate boundaries abruptly move and vertically displace the overlying water. Such large vertical movements of the Earth's crust can occur at destructive plate boundaries. It is very unlikely that they can form at divergent (constructive) or conservative plate boundaries. This is because constructive or conservative boundaries do not generally disturb the vertical displacement of the water column. Subduction zone related earthquakes generate the majority of all tsunamis.
There is often no advance warning of an approaching tsunami. However, since earthquakes are often a cause of tsunami, any earthquake occurring near a body of water may generate a tsunami if it occurs at shallow depth, is of moderate or high magnitude, and the water volume and depth is sufficient. In Japan moderate - 4.2 Magnitude earthquakes can generate tsunami which can inundate the area within 15 minutes.
A tsunami cannot be prevented or precisely predicted - even if the right magnitude of an earthquake occurs in the right location. Geologists, Oceanographers and Seismologist analyse each earthquake and based upon many factors may or may not issue a tsunami warning. However, there are some warning signs of an impending tsunami, and there are many systems being developed and in use to reduce the damage from tsunami. One of the most important systems that is used and constantly monitored are bottom pressure sensors. These are anchored and attached to buoys. Sensors on the equipment constantly monitor the pressure of the overlying water column - this can be deduced by the simple calculation of:
F = Gdh
where F = the overlying force or pressure in Newtons per metre square, G is the acceleration due to gravity, d = the density of the water and h = the height of the water column.
G = 9.8 m s2, d = 1.1 x 103 kg m3 and h is the depth of water in metres
Hence for a water column of 5,000 m depth the overlying pressure is equal to 9.8 x 1.1 x 103 x 5 x 103 or about 5.4 x 10 7 N m2 or about 5.7 Million tonnes per metre square.

Recently we saw a great tsunami efect on south east asia on coasts of countries like India, Indonasia,Srilanka etc.

Environment & Man

A letter by Late Smt. Indira Gandhi on Environment

Man and His Environment

Man and Environment

Man in Relation to His Environment

Stonehenge Had Neighboring, Wooden Twin—More to Come?

"It will completely change the way we think about the Stonehenge landscape."

Main Content

Start of Civilization

Earth the Biography: Oceans

The Early Earth and Plate Tectonics

Earth Day 2010 - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Man's effect on the environment

Mission Green Earth

Haiti Earthquake Aftermath

ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT PPT

Environment Forum PPT

Will the earth end on 21 December 2012?

Will Earth Die a “Natural” Death?

RAin water Harvesting

India debuts 'agricultural Wikipedia'

Shree Padre-The Water MAN

Large differences in lifestyles

DYNAMICS OF ERUPTIONS

Oceans

Plate Tectonics

Earthquakes

Volcanoes

Nutrients in water benefits agriculture

Drought Management and Agriculture in British Columbia

Environmental water management

Seafloor Spreading

Subduction

This is a drawing of a portion of the Earth's crust undergoing subduction.Click on image for full size version (40K GIF)Image copyright 1997 by the American Geophysical Union. Further electronic distribution is not allowed.

How Do Plates Move?

Clues to Plate Movements

This is a drawing of the Earth's lithosphere.Click on image for full size version (40K GIF)

What causes a Planet's surface to change its appearance?

This is an image of the Martian dunefields.Click on image for full size version (40K GIF)Image from: NASA

Plate Tectonics

Earth's tectonic plates. Plate boundaries are shown in red. Learn more about the geologic features related to Earth's tectonic plates at This Dynamic Planet Modified from USGS

What Is an Earthquake?

This diagram shows an earthquake along a fault. The focus of the earthquake is where the energy is released underground. The epicenter is the spot on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus. USGS

Surface Features of the Earth

The Earth's Crust, Lithosphere and Asthenosphere

This drawing shows the Earth's lithosphere (crust and upper mantle) on top of the asthenosphere.Click on image for full size version (40K GIF)

Surface and Interior of Earth

Click on image for full size version (378K GIF)Image courtesy of NASA

Structure of the Interior of Earth

Click on image for full size version (64K GIF)

Surface of the Earth

Click on image for full size version (383K GIF)Image from: Rick Kohrs, Space Science and Engineering Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison

This image shows the divisions of the Earth's interior. Click on the image to see labels. (Adapted from Beatty, 1990)

What Causes the Greenhouse Effect?

Earthquakes

Major Topics In Module 5:

Types of Faults

Earthquake Process

Detecting, Locating, and Measuring Earthquakes

Magnitude and Intensity

Primary Effects of Earthquakes

Secondary Effects of Earthquakes

Introduction

Types of faults

Normal faults

Reverse faults

Strike-slip faults

Earthquake processes

Seismic waves

Detecting, locating, and measuring earthquakes

Magnitude and intensity

Earthquake damages (secondary effects)

Landslides

Tsunami

Liquefaction

Fires

Tsunami Safety Tips

Lightning

Lightning Can Strike Twice

More About Lightning

This is a drawing of a portion of the Earth's crust undergoing subduction.
Click on image for full size version (40K GIF)
Image copyright 1997 by the American Geophysical Union. Further electronic distribution is not allowed.

This is a drawing of the Earth's lithosphere.
Click on image for full size version (40K GIF)

This is an image of the Martian dunefields.
Click on image for full size version (40K GIF)
Image from: NASA

Earth's tectonic plates. Plate boundaries are shown in red. Learn more about the geologic features related to Earth's tectonic plates at This Dynamic Planet
Modified from USGS

This diagram shows an earthquake along a fault. The focus of the earthquake is where the energy is released underground. The epicenter is the spot on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
USGS

This drawing shows the Earth's lithosphere (crust and upper mantle) on top of the asthenosphere.
Click on image for full size version (40K GIF)

Click on image for full size version (378K GIF)
Image courtesy of NASA

Click on image for full size version (383K GIF)
Image from: Rick Kohrs, Space Science and Engineering Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison